204 9 Transitions and Challenges for the Development of Basic Education
because of falling birth rates and temporary or permanent internal migration to
richer areas and urban centres.
9.3.4 Disparities Between Social Groups
Lastly, disparities between social groups are becoming increasingly visible. In
particular, these groups include many children from national minority groups,
girls in some areas, migrant children without residence entitlements, children left
behind in rural areas by parents who migrate for work in other places, and HIV/
AIDS orphans. These groups can suffer from very unequal educational opportu-
nities, be neglected and excluded prematurely, and can be subject to negative
discrimination.
9.3.5 Other Inequalities
Two other points are worth noting. Issues remain for tuition and fees. The policy
is that compulsory education is paid for by the state and is “free of tuition and
fees”. However, fees can be charged for things other than tuition and this has
led to some problems and abuses. National curriculum materials should be free,
as should basic workbooks. Where it is necessary to charge fees for additional
material this has to be agreed by local price departments. Schools cannot market
services that they require children to pay for, whether it be school lunches, refer-
ence books, or teacher prepared materials. But there are risks of “creeping mark-
ertization” where what is not expressly forbidden is tolerated and as competition
increases in urban environments especially many kinds of fees and contributions
are appearing that are largely unregulated.
Though physical access has improved in many areas quality remains prob-
lematic. With most children now enrolled the range of capability is wide but
whole class teaching is the normal style of classroom teaching with all children
proceeding at the same pace. In addition the national curriculum varies little from
location to location, though there are many variations in environment, language
and livelihoods across China. Much effective pedagogy is in use, but universalisa-
tion of access throws up new challenges of how to adapt these pedagogies to suit
the needs of different communities, and the needs of special groups vulnerable to
exclusion.
The responses to these concerns for horizontal and vertical equity, and reduc-
tions in growing inequalities that mirror the realities of China’s rapid economic
growth and social transformation, will now shape progress on nine year compul-
sory education over the next decade. Growing disparities will not serve to achieve
the goals of the compulsory education policy. Universalisation requires both better
distribution of access through to grade nine, and much more investment in quality