4 1 Introduction to the Development of Basic Education in China
service have evolved. Chapter 6 explores how school mapping and planning fall-
ing rolls has developed as demographic change and migration have redrawn the
map of students enrolments. Chapter 7 details the various reforms of the man-
agement and finance system for rural educational development and identifies the
strengths and weaknesses of different approaches. Chapter 8 illustrates how new
groups of marginalised children have emerged in case study areas. These include
left behind children created by migration, HIV orphans, minority children and in
some areas girls. The last Chapter synthesises insights from the case studies and
the analysis of special themes. It also returns to the findings of the research under-
taken in 1990 and offers an update and some comparisons drawing attention to
what has and has not been achieved and to issues that will shape progress over the
next twenty years. The analysis highlights the need to persist in ensuring that “the
last 10 %” enter primary school in the poorest areas and to recognise demographic
realities. Most importantly the research highlights how critical it will be to seek
for better balance in development strategies to address the needs of all children
living in many different circumstances. Actions are needed to promote both hori-
zontal and vertical equity between regions, urban and rural areas, different types of
schools, and different social groups.
1.1.1 Patterns of Growth in Participation in Basic Education
China maintains the largest basic education system in the world with about 100
million children in primary school (grades 1–6), more than 50 million at junior
secondary (grades 7–9), and over 25 million at higher secondary (grades 10–12).
By some definitions China has already met its commitments first made in 1986
to provide universal nine-year compulsory education. Since the early 1990s enrol-
ment rates in primary education have indicated that over 90 % of the age group
have entered primary schooling in most parts of China, with most of the problems
remaining being located in the poorest counties and amongst national minority
populations. The research undertaken in 1990 was consistent with this view and
showed that in Tongxian, a rich county, participation was high and improved qual-
ity and great equity were the main challenges. In Ansai, a poor county, many chil-
dren failed to complete primary schooling successfully and quality was low, and
in Zhaojue, a poor national minority area, the majority dropped out before grade 6
and physical conditions were frequently well below national standards.
Over the last twenty five years nine years of compulsory education has evolved
and a range of policy initiatives have been launched. These address some of the
problems identified in the research report in 1990. In 1985 the total number of
primary children enrolled was about 138 million. This fell to around 120 million
by 1990, but recovered to 140 million in the mid 1990s as a result of more effec-
tive efforts to improve participation rates and universalise access. Since then the
effects of a falling birth rate have resulted in a continuous decline in numbers to
about 100 million. Junior secondary enrolment began to take off from 1993 and