provided the foundation for believing that all people
are fundamentally equal: (1) that every human being is
created by God “in God’s own image” (Genesis 1:27)
and have equal dignity from that divine creation; (2)
each person has fallen away from God through sin
(“for all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of
God” [Romans 3:23]); (3) every human being has rea-
son; (4) as physical beings of the same species,
humans have biological EQUALITY, as evidenced by their
ability to reproduce with each other. This last argu-
ment for human equality forms the basis of the MOD-
ERNscientific, British LIBERALview or egalitarianism in
Thomas HOBBESand John LOCKE. It was this physiologi-
cal definition of equality that JEFFERSONreferred to in
his famous phrase in the DECLARATION OF INDEPEND-
ENCE, that all “are created equal.” This biological basis
for equality leaves many aspects of society character-
ized by inequality (wealth, status, income, occupation,
power, prestige), but it commends equal legal rights
appropriate to that physical existence (“life, LIBERTY,
and property”).
Alexis de TOCQUEVILLEregarded the United States of
America as the most egalitarian society, where every
individual is regarded as equal to any other because of
the Modern liberal philosophy and the predominant
Protestant CHRISTIANITYin the United States. No legal
differences of status are allowed in the United States;
the CONSTITUTIONforbids government-granted titles of
nobility and distinction. But U.S. society allows great
inequality of wealth, social status, occupational pres-
tige, and so on; however, these “private” inequalities
are not supported to undermine the basic political
equality of “one person, one vote.”
During the 20th century, this basic legal equality
has been extended to more and more groups and social
circumstances not envisioned by liberal philosophers.
SOCIALISMand COMMUNISMargued for economic equal-
ity; FEMINISM strove for gender equality; the CIVIL
RIGHTS movement, for racial, religious, and ethnic
equality. ANIMAL RIGHTSand HOMOSEXUALrights activists
attempt to extend social equality to creatures and prac-
tices that were not included in the original scientific
definition of human equality.
Extensions of the concept of human equality chal-
lenge other social values (freedom,distinction, TRADI-
TION, religious and moral precepts, biological families,
etc.). A HIERARCHICALview is the opposite of egalitari-
anism because it claims that some persons, social
structure, ideas, and values are better than others; not
all are equally valid. So, egalitarianism promotes con-
tinued debate and public discussion. ARISTOTLErecom-
mended a justice that treats true equals the same and
unequals differently. The challenge in political thought
and practice has been to determine how people are
similar and different and to treat them accordingly.Further Reading
Nielsen, Kai. Equality and Liberty: A Defense of Radical Egalitari-
anism.Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1984.elite/elitism/elitist
A member of a small superior minority or ruling
group. Similar to the CLASSICAL idea of ARISTOCRACY,
elite originally meant the best people at the top of
organizations (governmental, religious, social, and
economic). For example, a prince or an executive
might be considered an elite. The leaders of the
church, social clubs, or big business have been por-
trayed as elite leadership. Any profession (law, medi-
cine, and academic) has its elite members who have
distinguished themselves by great accomplishments,
honors, and fame. In the early CHRISTIAN political
thought of St. AUGUSTINE, such an elite was most sus-
ceptible to corrupting pride, vanity, and evil. A worldly
elite was almost always wicked and selfish. In MODERN
political thought, this criticism of elites shifts to their
undemocratic characteristics. REPUBLICAN revolutions
(17th-century England, 18th-century France, 19th-
century Germany, 20th-century Russia and China)
tended to attack some ruling elite, which was por-
trayed as elitist and corrupt.
Even after democracy was established in most
countries, elite theory asserted that a small social elite
still controlled the government (the rich, certain fami-
lies, government officials, etc.). Leaders in the COMMU-
NISTcountries, such as the Soviet Union, were seen as
a party elite that received privileges and power that
most citizens did not enjoy. Elite rule is portrayed as
using manipulation and coercion to maintain its pow-
erful position in society. The control of the media,
education, and election campaigns allegedly keep the
elite in power while giving the majority the illusion
that the popular will prevails. A close-knit network of
elites with rapid, secret communication supposedly
thwarts any effective challenge to their power. Often,
conspiracy theories emerge around elite views of
power: that some small group (the CIA, banks, gradu-
ates of Yale, the oil industry, etc.) secretly controls
every aspect of life. Often, elites are identified with92 elite/elitism/elitist