and economic stagnation. Its personal code of honor,
the goodness and public service of “the Christian gen-
tleman,” and its peaceful agrarian lifestyle, however,
seem attractive when compared with modern com-
mercialism, individualism, and INDUSTRIALISM. This
nostalgic quality of feudalism reappears in various
CONSERVATIVEand Tory movements, including, to some
extent, ROMANTICISMand the Green (ENVIRONMENTAL)
movement.
Further Reading
Bloch, M. Feudal Society,2 vols., L. A. Manyon, transl. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1962.
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (1762–1814) Ger-
man philosopher
Johann Gottlieb Fichte is best known for his develop-
ment of transcendental IDEALISM. He was the most
influential German philosopher in the period between
KANTand HEGEL. Fichte was also a prominent German
nationalist; especially in his later years, he abandoned
his early emphasis on INDIVIDUALISMand became a pro-
ponent of STATEcontrol of education and trade.
The son of a poor weaver, Fichte’s education
through the gymnasium was financed by a local
wealthy farmer who was impressed by the boy’s intel-
lectual capabilities. Fichte studied philosophy, theology,
and classical literature at Jena and Leipzig Universities,
but his sponsor died, and the young philosopher was
forced to tutor to support himself. During his studies
and tutoring, Fichte became a disciple of Immanuel
Kant. In 1791, Fichte met the prominent philosopher,
and in an attempt to ingratiate himself, he wrote Ver-
such einer Kritik aller Offenbarung (An Attempt of the
Critique of All Revelations). This work applied Kant’s
philosophy to religion. Kant was so impressed that he
helped Fichte get the essay published. Fichte became
renowned as a result of the essay.
Although a devotee of Kant, Fichte believed that
Kant’s philosophy was unfinished and that it was his
duty to remove the dogmatism that contemporary
thinkers ascribed to Kant’s idealism. For Fichte, Kant
had worked to prove the objective nature of knowl-
edge but had not developed a philosophical founda-
tion for his idealism. Fichte’s theory asserted that only
two branches of philosophy are possible: realism and
idealism. Realism attempts to deduce knowledge from
the material world; idealism develops knowledge
through the powers of REASON. Fichte’s idealism was
based on the premise that knowledge could only be
produced through intuition (the ability of the self to
recognize the self as being). Idealism could explain
realism, but realism could not explain or measure ide-
alism.
Fichte went on to write on the French Revolution
and practical philosophy. From 1794–99, he taught at
Jena University. Fichte asserted that the existent moral
order in the world confirmed the existence of God and
that there was no need to recognize a specific special
or material being. By endeavoring to attribute a con-
sciousness to God, Fichte contended that people lim-
ited the deity. In the transcendentalist tradition, he
argued that people should look within themselves to
find their true nature: Morality necessitated autonomy
of thought. However, this viewpoint led to the philoso-
pher to be accused of being an atheist, and he was
fired from Jena University in 1799. He moved to
Berlin, where he became more mystical in his writings,
partially as a result of friendships with prominent
Romantics of the day.
During the Napoleonic period, Fichte became a
German nationalist and presented a series of lectures
in support of patriotism. In 1810, he joined the new
Prussian University in Berlin, where he taught until his
death. In spite of his earlier emphasis on individual
autonomy, in his later years, Fichte contended that
individuals were actually “echoes” of the state and
needed to be molded through education and state
propaganda. Fichte also argued that the state should
control commerce and trade.Further Reading
Breazeale, D., and Rockmore, T., eds. Fichte: Historical Con-
texts/Contemporary Controversies.Amherst, Mass.: Human-
ity Books, 1994.Filmer, Sir Robert (1588–1653) English politi-
cal theorist and royalist
Filmer developed the theoretical defense of DIVINE
RIGHT OF KINGS and royal ABSOLUTISM in England.
Against the REPUBLICANand SOCIAL-CONTRACTtheories of
John LOCKE, Filmer argued that all government is based
in the authority of the father, and so the patriarchal
(male MONARCHY) government is ordained by God. Like
the French absolutist theorist BODIN, Filmer supported
his arguments with the Bible, English constitutionalFilmer, Sir Robert 107