———. The Papers of Benjamin Franklin,L. W. Labaree et al.,
eds. 23 vols. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press,
1959–.
Stourzh, G. Benjamin Franklin and American Foreign Policy.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954.
Van Doren, C. Benjamin Franklin.New York: Viking Press, 1938.
fraternity
Literally “brotherhood,” or the political idea that all
citizens or members of a group are close and related
like brothers in a family. This has been applied in
Western political thought in numerous ways. In the
Bible, the supposedly warm ties between kin brothers
is destroyed by envy and murder (when one of the first
two brothers Cain murdered his brother Abel, another
son of Adam and Eve, committing fratricide [Genesis
4:7; 33:1–11; 50:19–20]). Similarly, the intended love
and mutual protection of brothers is violated when
Joseph’s brothers (again out of envious malice) sell
him into slavery. In the CHRISTIANBible, the saints, who
acknowledge Jesus as their lord and savior, become
spiritual brothers, siblings in the faith (Galatians 3:38;
Colossians 3:11; I Peter 2:17). Christ himself declares
that his brothers are those who obey the will of
God (Matthew 12:50). The church designation in
Holy Orders of men (monks) as “friars” signifies this
spiritual brotherhood. An imitation of this in pagan
religious orders, like the Masons and other secret so-
cieties, often refer to themselves as a brotherhood: All
imply a bond to each other and loyalty to a common
group and purpose as strong as blood or family rela-
tions.
In ancient Greek political thought (as in ARIS-
TOTLE), this is closely associated with “friendship” (or
philia)—a particularly close intimate relationship that
can occur between fellow citizens, family members,
and even master and slave. Often, adelphia(brother-
hood) is linked to the military, fellow-warriors or sol-
diers tied to each other by honor, patriotism, and
common sacrifice (even to death). Roman thought
emphasizes this military element.
Each of these conceptions of fraternity employs
an exclusive view of the membership. Like modern
collegiate fraternities, the brotherhood is distinct-
ive by excluding others, forming a tight bond among
those exclusively included. The bond of Israel
(God’s chosen people) is defined by the exclusion of
outsiders (the gentile). The “saved” Christians be-
come adopted brothers through the Son of God, Je-
sus Christ; the brotherhood of Greek citizens is
contrasted with non-Greek barbarians; an ISLAMIC
brotherhood is united against “the infidel” non-
Muslims.
MODERN EGALITARIAN DEMOCRACYtends to diminish
fraternity by attacking any exclusiveness, insisting that
all humans are equal despite differences and that fra-
ternities’ separateness denies universal humanity. So,
for example, the LIBERALAmerican trend toward pro-
hibiting all discrimination against any individual by
clubs, churches, civic organizations, or private groups
on the basis that any exclusion is wrong prevents fra-
ternal relationships from developing. The backlash
against this legally imposed uniformity is sometimes
expressed in radically racist or nationalist groups simi-
lar to FASCISM. Because the strong affectionate ties of
fraternity are rejected by liberal egalitarian democracy,
they sometimes come out in exaggerated group loyal-
ties, such as CULTS.
The leading scholar of this concept, Wilson Carey
MCWILLIAMS, traces its influence in the social, religious,
cultural, and political history of the United States in
his book The Idea of Fraternity in America (1973).
Included in McWilliams’s analysis are the themes of
brotherhood in the CIVIL RIGHTS movement, various
religious revivals, and several political philosophies in
the United States.Further Readings
Freud, S. “Totem and Taboo.” In The Complete Psychological
Works of Sigmund Freud,J. Srachey, ed., transl, vol. XIII.
London: Hogarth Press, 1971.
Hutter, H. Politics as Friendship.Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier
University Press, 1978.
Ignatieff, M. The Needs of Strangers.New York: Viking Press,
1985.
McWilliams, W. C. The Idea of Fraternity in America.Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1973.
Nelson, B. The Idea of Usury: From Tribal Brotherhood to Univer-
sal Otherhood.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949.
Simmel, G. The Sociology of Georg Simmel,K. Wolff, ed., transl.
New York: Free Press, 1950.
Stephen, J. F. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.London: Cambridge
University Press, 1875.freedom
One of the most important and complex ideas in polit-
ical thought; in MODERNphilosophy possibly the most
central concept along with its corollaries, INDIVIDUAL-
ISM, EQUALITY, and DEMOCRACY. Freedom is also
expressed as LIBERTY.freedom 113