that their interconnections with the economic system
must be examined. Consequently, Horkheimer empha-
sized the necessity of both quantitative and qualitative
social research of an interdisciplinary nature, with the
goal of producing knowledge that was able to con-
tribute to the struggle against all forms of political
domination. Following the NAZIrise to power in 1933,
Horkheimer facilitated the transfer of the institute
from Frankfurt to Geneva and then to New York City
and California. In 1953, the institute returned to Ger-
many, and Horkheimer was appointed rector of the
University of Frankfurt.
Horkheimer’s own work in critical theory is gener-
ally divided into two stages. In the first stage,
Horkheimer was careful to elaborate his notion of crit-
ical theory and to expound on its revolutionary poten-
tial. For example, in his essay “Traditional and Critical
Theory” (1937), Horkheimer argued for a HISTORICAL
MATERIALISMthat viewed human activities within the
changing contexts of concrete social situations. Out of
material social life, particular human thoughts and
practices emerge, and it is only by examining specific
historical conditions that ideas and practices can be
understood. From this perspective, Horkheimer
claimed that the validity of ideas was to be assessed
and confirmed through their application in practical
human activities and historical struggle. Critical the-
ory can then diagnose ideological discrepancies
between theory and practice, such as the contradiction
between LIBERALISM’s support for the concept of EQUAL-
ITY and capitalism’s creation of real conditions of
inequality. Critical theory would also contribute to a
revolutionary politics capable of transcending such
contradictions by securing a genuine material equality
and thereby “building a new world.”
In the second stage, Horkheimer grew more pes-
simistic toward the possibility of revolutionary social
progress and eventually focused his attention on theo-
logical experiences of the transcendent. In books such
as Dialectic of Enlightenment(1947), co-authored with
Adorno, and Eclipse of Reason (1947), Horkheimer
analyzed the ways that modern culture is conditioned
by a capitalist mode of production. Capitalism not
only dominates working conditions, but also the per-
sonal lives of individuals by selling entertainment as a
form of escapism from the stress of having to earn a
living in a competitive marketplace. Mass culture is
essentially meaningless, but it offers an illusory release
from the drudgery of work. However, free time thus
serves to sustain the capitalist wage-labor system by
making individuals dependent upon the commodities
produced and marketed by that system. The circular
nature of capitalism helps maintain the status quo. In
the end, Horkheimer regarded contemporary society as
a “totally administered world” that had eroded the
autonomy of the individual.Further Reading
Stirk, P. M. R. Max Horkheimer: A New Interpretation.Lanham,
Md.: Barnes & Noble, 1992.Huguenots
French Protestant Christians, following the theology
and political theory of John CALVINand emerging in
France during the mid-1500s. As critics of the Roman
CATHOLIC (established) Church in France and being
REPUBLICANin IDEOLOGY, they caused a civil war that
lasted for more than 30 years (1562–94). The most
notorious persecution of the Huguenots occurred in
1572 on St. Bartholomew’s Day (August 24) when
10,000 were massacred in Paris and other French
cities. The Edict of Nantes (1598) led to FREEDOMof
religion in France and an end to official persecution of
the Huguenots. This, however, was revoked by King
Louis XIV in 1685, forcing many French Protestants to
flee to Holland, England, Switzerland, Prussia, and
America. Only in 1802 was the Huguenot Church
legally permitted, though it was again repressed by the
Bourbon Restoration in 1815. Since 1819, it has
enjoyed freedom and eventually formed the Protestant
Federation of France.
The Huguenots represent a classic case of CHURCH-
AND-STATEconflict, the disastrous effects of oppression
of religious LIBERTY. The CHRISTIANchurch (Catholic
and Protestant) in France has never recovered from
this religious/political strife, and the diminishing influ-
ence of faith and morals on French politics led to the
turbulence of the revolution of 1789, the Napoleonic
Wars, and governmental instability and betrayal well
into the 20th century.Further Reading
Konnert, Mark. Civic Agendas and Religious Passion.Kirksville,
Mo.: Truman State University Press, 1997.human nature
The definition of what human beings’ nature is, or
what makes humanity different from other animalhuman nature 147