humanism/humanist 149dom), conscience, expression (speech and press), and
movement. PROPERTY, or private ownership of land and
possessions (which also is related to economic free-
dom, or CAPITALISM), is often included in human rights.
These NATURAL RIGHTSof “Life, Liberty and Property” in
John LOCKE’s phrase, are the human rights supposedly
attending human existence, or God-given rights that
preexist society and cannot be taken by the state with-
out violating divine law and NATURAL LAW. Government
for British LIBERAL, SOCIAL-CONTRACTtheory is formed
to protectthese rights, and any state that violates them
is illegitimate (see LEGITIMACY).
Once government is formed, other human social
rights emerge: the right to legal due process (or a fair
trial); political participation (or having a say in the
laws that govern you, such as voting); the right to edu-
cation, employment, security, and protection from
crime or foreign invasion. Such human rights are
expressed in various political documents such as the
U.S. CONSTITUTION’s Bill of Rights, The UN Declaration
of Human Rights of 1948, and the French Republic’s
Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789). President
Jimmy CARTER made human rights a prominent goal
during his administration.
Problems occur in human rights issues in two ways:
(1) the achievement of some rights (e.g., freedom) may
violate other rights (e.g., property), as when unregu-
lated industrial development can impoverish certain
populations or pollute the ENVIRONMENT; and (2) West-
ern concepts of individual rights may not fit other cul-
tures or communities (such as Chinese or Muslim
nations). So, liberal democracies trying to force other
countries (the former SOVIET UNION, Iran, India, Africa)
to adopt rights to religious and economic freedom may
violate their most firmly held values (community con-
formity, a single religious faith, etc.).
The presumption of human-rights philosophy is
that substantive social good will follow the acceptance
of abstract individual rights. So, for example, protec-
tion of human life will make a society healthier and
just; allowance of freedom of religion will please God
and render a society more moral; economic freedom
and private ownership of property will enhance mate-
rial prosperity; and democratic participation will make
for a more peaceful, happy society and responsive gov-
ernment.
Further Readings
Brownlie, I., ed. Basic Documents on Human Rights,2nd ed.
Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1981.
Cranston, M. What are Human Rights?New York: Taplinger,
1973.humanism/humanist
A philosophy that places human beings, rather than
God or other aspects of nature, at the center of the
universe. For humanists, the human species is the
most important reference point in ETHICS, politics, sci-
ence, art, and economics. Rather than asking “What is
God’s will in this matter?” or “How will this affect the
environment?” humanism asks “How will this benefit
humanity?” It takes human beings as the measure of
all things, partly because most humanism (such as
secular humanism) is atheistic and, therefore, believes
that humans are the best, most highly developed crea-
tures in the universe. Both CLASSICALpolitical thought
and ENLIGHTENMENT philosophy take this positive
humanist view of humanity, contrary to the more neg-
ative Judeo-CHRISTIANor Machiavellian REALISMview of
humans as sinful and destructive. ARISTOTLE’s human-
ism conceives of a human being as excellent and, even
“perfect,” when he or she fully develops his or her
human telos (capacities) of reasoned speech and
moral choice: The educated, prosperous, cultured,
ethical, politically active Greek gentleman becomes
the ideal of human goodness, the standard for VIRTUE
and practical excellence. For Roman philosopher CIC-
ERO, the soldier–hero–statesman of the empire, with
his valor, courage, strength, and patriotism, is the
measure of human goodness. Enlightenment thinkers
Jean-Jacques ROUSSEAU and Thomas JEFFERSON saw
human reason and science civilizing the world and
education ennobling humanity. With the right social
order (democratic, EGALITARIAN, scientific, technologi-
cal, middle-class, prosperous) humans would cease
being brutal and ignorant, and history would usher in
a new dawn of freedom and happiness. MARXIST COM-
MUNISM continued this humanist view by seeing
human material production and economic advance-
ment as creating a nonalienated individual who would
soar to the level of gods: creative, benevolent, aes-
thetic, free, peace loving, and cooperative. SOCIALISM
would bring the best out in humans; true human
excellence in communism is the highest achievement
of Nature.
Contrary to these optimistic humanist theories are
not just traditional CHRISTIANthinkers (St. AUGUSTINE,
John CALVIN) who see human sin as predominant and