imperialism/imperialist 155were to support the pope’s authority, to reform the
Catholic Church through education, and to spread the
gospel around the world. Organized along military
lines, the head of the order is called the general, and
strict discipline is enforced.
In Protestant countries, the Jesuits were often
viewed with suspicion as deceitful, clever, and power-
ful instruments of the papacy to restore Catholicism as
the official state religion. Their effectiveness and politi-
cal involvement caused the Jesuits to be expelled from
various regions, including France, Germany, Latin
America, Portugal, and England. In every case, they
were eventually able to reestablish themselves. In
America, they are noted for founding schools and uni-
versities, providing rigorous CLASSICALand religious
education, and providing prominent scholars for the
church.
Ignatius set an example of a disciplined, devout life
to the Jesuit order. He left a military career and com-
mitted himself to be “a soldier for Christ.” He studied
in Spain and Paris and took pilgrimages to Rome and
Jerusalem. His rigorous life of prayer, poverty, and
mystical spirituality (expressed in his book, Spiritual
Exercises) impressed others in the church and drew
many men into the Jesuit order. He wrote the constitu-
tions for the Society of Jesus between 1547 and 1550.
In 1622, he was canonized or declared an official saint
of the Catholic Church.
Further Reading
Ignatius Loyola, St. The Autobiography of St. Ignatius Loyola
with related documents,introd. and notes by John C. Olin,
ed., Joseph F. O’Callaghan, transl. New York: Harper Torch-
books, 1974.
imperial church
The official state church of an empire, whether the
MEDIEVALWestern CATHOLICChurch of the HOLY ROMAN
EMPIRE, the British imperial church of England, the
BYZANTINEEastern Orthodox Church, or the Russian
ORTHODOXChurch. Each of these imperial CHRISTIAN
churches share the distinctions of being legally estab-
lished by the government (persecuting other church
denominations), acting directly on politics (often
bishops serving as secular officials), and adopting the
titles, pomp, dignity, and authority of the state. Crit-
ics of these imperial churches (both within and out-
side the official church institution) attack them as
worldly and proud, a violation of Christ’s humility
and the dictum that “my kingdom is not of this
world” (John 18:36). REFORMATIONProtestants Martin
LUTHERand John CALVINsought to reform the imperial
church structures by simplifying the governance,
architecture, titles, and dress of church leaders. Con-
sequently, they had the political effect of advancing
EQUALITY (the “priesthood of all believers”) and
DEMOCRACY(elected clergy, congregationalism) against
the HIERARCHYof the imperial church. This influenced
the development of MODERN REPUBLICANISMand LIBER-
ALISM(as in the political theory of the PURITANJohn
LOCKE). Movements within the imperial church (such
as the work of St. Frances of Assisi) attempted to
reform its officious character and prevent a schism in
the church.Further Reading
Donfried, Karl P., and Richardson, Peter, ed. Judaism and Chris-
tianity in First-Century Rome. Grand Rapids, Mich.:
William B. Eerdmans, ca. 1998.imperialism/imperialist
A system of political domination and economic
EXPLOITATION by an “imperial” nation (e.g., Rome,
Britain) of a “colonial” area (India, Africa, North and
South America). Before MARX’s and LENIN’s theories of
the 19th and 20th centuries, imperialism was generally
seen in positive, favorable ways. CICERO justifies the
Roman Empire as bringing LAW, order, civilization, and
advanced economics and culture to the savage areas of
Germany and Britain. The CATHOLIC HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
of the MIDDLE AGESis seen as a noble, CHRISTIANregion
protecting the faithful against barbarian invaders and
Muslims. The early British Empire is presented (even by
Karl Marx) as spreading DEMOCRACY, CAPITALISM, and
economic development to a dark, AUTHORITARIAN, brutal,
and impoverished Third World.
By the early 20th century, however, Marxism
(especially the theories of V. I. Lenin) treated imperi-
alism in less and less sympathetic terms. This Marx-
ist-Leninist indictment of Western imperialism
continues to the present in LEFTISTpolitical IDEOLOGY,
which sees all imperialism as evil domination. MULTI-
CULTURALISMclaims that all peoples and cultures are
equally just and valid, so the idea that Western
DEMOCRACYcan give anything to Africa or Asia is seen
as arrogant “cultural imperialism.” This Marxist COM-
MUNISTview of Western imperialism extends to the
spread of Christian missionaries, which it uses to jus-