Europe as contrasted with the greater ENVIRONMENTAL
concern in the LIBERALdemocracies.
Both capitalist and socialist commentators on
industrialism praise the way in which this Modern
economic system encourages social (and international)
interdependence, bringing people, classes, cultures,
and different nations closer together. This elimination
of national and cultural isolation makes the world
seem more interconnected, as it certainly is under
industrialism, international trade, the Internet, and so
on. Other advantages of industrialism include its val-
ues of hard work, honesty, nonviolent competition,
and productivity. Early advocates of industrialism
noted its compatibility with EGALITARIAN democracy
and social PROGRESS. They contrasted its commercial
values with earlier (Medieval) military societies with
their emphasis on honor, warfare, and patriotism. Crit-
ics in the 20th century bemoaned industrialism’s ten-
dency to subsume distinctive traditional cultures into
a homogeneous “McDonald’s” U.S. culture, cheapening
human distinctiveness and reducing all human rela-
tionships to commodity exchange.
Further Readings
Aron, R. Eighteen Lectures on Industrial Society .London: Wei-
denfeld & Nicolson, 1967.
interest/interests
Things or activities that people have or want, such as
PROPERTY, RIGHTS, positions, POWER, political participa-
tion, prestige, honor, fame, and so on. In Western
political theory, the language of interests does not
appear until the MODERN period, especially in the
British LIBERALISMof Thomas HOBBESand John LOCKE.
Prior to this, VIRTUEand JUSTICEare the dominant cate-
gories (see ARISTOTLE, PLATO, St. Thomas AQUINAS).
There, in Modern philosophy, human interests attend
the physiological condition of people (self-preserva-
tion) and concern “life, LIBERTY, and PROPERTY,” in
Locke’s famous phrase. Then, human interests develop
into rights to certain economic, social, intellectual, and
political prerogatives and activities. Mostly individual,
the concept of interests then extends to community
interests (in ROUSSEAU, FASCISM, BARBER) and national
interests (in GROTIUS). MARXISM, of course, speaks of
class interests, where groups (owners versus workers,
rural farmers versus industrial proletarians) have con-
flicting economic interests. James MADISON’s PLURALISM
in the United States assumes a multiplicity of social,
economic, and religious interests. The U.S. CONSTITU-
TION, with its system of CHECKS AND BALANCES, is con-
structed specifically to manage and balance such
conflicting interests. Contemporary thinkers on inter-
ests include Ronald Dworkin, John RAWLS, and Robert
NOZICK, who express philosophically the current LIB-
ERAL, CONSERVATIVE, and LIBERTARIAN notions, respec-
tively, of individual and social (or common) interests.
The POST-MODERNISMof FOUCAULT, much like ancient
and Medieval thought, challenges the Modern preoc-
cupation of human interests as a historical customary
formulation distorting the full human potential. Many
other critics regard the contemporary overemphasis on
interests as reducing people to selfish economic
beings, thus trivializing their higher human essence,
worth, or spirituality.Further Readings
Barry, B. “The public interest,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian
Societysupp., vol. 38, London: The Aristotelian Society,
(1964): 1–18.
Benn, S. I. “Interests in politics,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian
Society 60,London: The Aristotelian Society, (1959–60):
123–40.
Connolly, W. E. “The public interest and the common good.” In
Appearance and Reality in Politics.Cambridge, Eng.: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1981.international law
The body of LAW that attempts to regulate relations
between nations to prevent conflicts from becoming
violent warfare. This includes (1) theoretical interna-
tional law, or the study of philosophies of just relations
among states, or international jurisprudence (which
defines such general principles as nonaggression,
respect for boundaries, and rules against murder, theft,
and piracy, etc.); (2) customary international law, or
the unwritten but commonly understood practices
between nations (such as respect for diplomatic im-
munity, professional courtesy, etc.); and positive inter-
national law, or the formal agreements (treaties,
conventions, organizations) that regulate contempo-
rary international relations (such as the United
Nations, the International Court of Justice, the Gen-
eral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the Geneva Con-
vention on Treatment of Prisoners of War, etc.).
Historically, international law begins with the law
of the Roman Empire and continues through the
CANON LAWof the MEDIEVAL CATHOLICChurch. Modern
thinker Hugo GROTIUSapplies LIBERAL SOCIAL-CONTRACT158 interest/interests