liberalism, American 185view of humanity and government. A 20th-century
equivalent of this philosophical, Lockean liberalism,
would be a CONSERVATIVE, LAISSEZ-FAIRE, REPUBLICAN PARTY
IDEOLOGY(as in the administration of Ronald REAGAN).
The distinctive features of MODERNliberalism include
INDIVIDUALISM, materialism, an emphasis on NATURAL
RIGHTS, LIBERTYand FREEDOM, EQUALITYlimited for some
by SOCIAL CONTRACT, private PROPERTY, separation of reli-
gion and politics (or CHURCH AND STATE), and REPUBLICAN
DEMOCRACY. Prominent liberals in this sense include
Thomas JEFFERSON, James MADISON, and Alexander
HAMILTON. This liberalism tends to accompany eco-
nomic CAPITALISM(free market, free enterprise), as in
Adam SMITH, and protestant CHRISTIANITY(as in John
CALVIN). So, liberalism is most manifest in the society
and politics of the United States of America. Its promi-
nent critics on the RIGHTinclude traditional CATHOLIC
philosophy (John Henry Newman), FASCISM, and CLASSI-
CALrepublicanism; and on the LEFT, MARXISM, COMMU-
NISM, SOCIALISM, SOCIAL DEMOCRACY, COMMUNITARIANISM,
and American liberalism. Both Left and Right critics of
philosophical liberalism attack its emphasis on private
individualism, private rights and property, a lack of
morality and social VIRTUE, and its competition. The
most extreme ideological expression of British, Lockean
liberalism is LIBERTARIANthought or ANARCHISM.
Hobbes and Locke are typical liberal thinkers. They
conceive of human beings in Modern scientific, mate-
rialistic terms, as biological “matter in motion,” led by
physical “pleasure-and-pain” impulses, guided by sen-
sory stimulation. This natural condition gives rise to
the natural rights of “Life, Liberty, and property,” to
continue that existence. Human reason leads people to
institute government through a social contract of free
individuals to protect their rights from murder, theft,
slavery, and so on. Government is limited to this crimi-
nal-justice role and an any more intrusive state is not
LEGITIMATE. Most human business is to be conducted
privately (though business and contracts), not publicly
(through the government). People are best left free to
pursue their own INTERESTS. Only the individual knows
what is best for him- or herself. Consequently, moral
judgment is individual and relative. No one can dictate
ideals to another person. Personal autonomy and free-
dom are of the highest value.
The benefits of this liberal ideology are great indi-
vidual liberty (freedom of thought, conscience, speech,
press, movement, religious belief, economic activity),
prosperity, and democracy. The disadvantages of liber-
alism include privatism, selfishness, loneliness, and a
lack of community identity, AUTHORITY, and moral cer-
tainty. Because of its economic and technological devel-
opment and political freedom, liberalism has advanced
around the world since its inception in 17th-century
Europe. However, cultural, regional, and religious reac-
tions to liberalism have resisted its expansion (as in
fundamentalist ISLAMin Iran, Confucian and commu-
nist ideology in China, reactionary czarist nationalist
movements in Russia, neofascism in Germany, and con-
servative Catholic and EVANGELICALChristian thought).
All of the opponents of philosophical liberalism blame
modern ALIENATION, social dysfunction, and the break-
down of the family and declining moral values on lib-
eral society. Benjamin BARBER’s book Strong Democracy
critiques U.S. liberal individualism from a classical and
communitarian perspective.
Contemporary defenders of liberalism (like Robert
Nozick) claim that more benefits than costs result
from liberal society, that humans value freedom more
than order or security, and that the greatest cultural
and religious achievements have historically occurred
in an atmosphere of individual LIBERTY. The contro-
versy over liberalism and its effects promises to con-
tinue into the next millennium.Further Readings
Arblaster, A. The Rise and Decline of Western Liberalism.Oxford,
Eng.: Blackwell, 1984.
Bramsted, E. K., and Melhuish, K. J., eds. Western Liberalism: A
History in Documents from Locke to Croce.London: Long-
man, 1978.
Dworkin, R. Taking Rights Seriously.Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1977.
Gray, John. Enlightenment’s Wake: Politics and Culture at the
Close of the Modern Age.New York: Routledge, 1995.
MacLean, D., and Mills, C., eds. Liberalism Reconsidered.To -
towa, N.J.: Rowman & Allanheld, 1983.
Manning, D. J. Liberalism.New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1976.
Mansfield, H. C., Jr. The Spirit of Liberalism.Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1978.
Ruggiero, G. de. The History of European Liberalism.Boston:
Beacon Press, (1925) 1959.
Walsh, David. The Growth of the Liberal Soul.Columbia: Univer-
sity of Missouri Press, ca. 1997.liberalism, American
A 20th-century U.S. political IDEOLOGYassociated with
the LEFT WINGof the DEMOCRATIC PARTY, emphasizing
central or federal government regulation of the econ-
omy, extensive social-welfare programs (for the poor,
elderly, minorities, women, etc.) in education, hous-
ing, health care, and job training. Liberalism is the