Skinner, Q. The Foundations of Modern Political Thought,vol. I:
The Renaissance.Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University
Press, 1978.
Madison, James (1751–1836) American states-
man, political philosopher, U.S. president, and “Father
of the Constitution”
Madison’s political thought was representative of
Calvinist or PROTESTANT CHRISTIANITY, Lockean LIBERAL-
ISMand CLASSICAL REPUBLICANISM. Raised on a typical
Virginia plantation, his education (by PRESBYTERIAN
ministers and at Princeton under John WITHERSPOON)
was heavily classical and Calvinist; that taught him
that humans are basically sinful (even the “elect” of
God) and prone to display their envy, greed, jealously,
and oppression in politics. Therefore, a just society
must divide power, encourage PLURALISM, and have
CHECKS AND BALANCESin government. In his famous
Federalist Paper#10, Madison describes this basic the-
ory of a large REPUBLICwith diverse groups competing
for POWER, none large or powerful enough to dominate
the other. The U.S. CONSTITUTIONwith its FEDERALISM
(dividing power between central national and decen-
tralized state governments, and breaking the state into
three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial)
accomplishes the distribution of power that for Madi-
son will prevent TYRANNY. Unjust, DESPOTICgovernment
can come from local DEMOCRATS’ communities (which
oppress minorities) or concentrated national ELITES
(which rob the people with high taxes and rule with
autocratic patronage). The Madisonian system strives
to balance these potential tyrannies, “pitting ambition
against ambition” to protect INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS(to life,
LIBERTY, and private PROPERTY). Depending on the time
in U.S. history, Madison saw the threat to liberty from
a different quarter: During the American Revolution,
when he served in the Continental Congress (or
national government), he perceived the petty, jealous,
and stingy decentralized state governments as the
worst expression of human sin, so he advocated a
stronger central government (the U.S. Constitution
rather than the Articles of Confederation), but when
the national government became too powerful during
the FEDERALISTadministration of John ADAMS, Madison
argued for greater STATES RIGHTS. As secretary of state
under President Thomas JEFFERSON, Madison reasserted
a strong nationalism with the Louisiana Purchase and
Embargo Act. As fourth president of the United States,
he balanced nationalism and a liberal interpretation of
the Constitution with an ANTI-FEDERALIST CONSERVATIVE,
or “strict,” interpretation of federal power. When argu-
ing for national protection of individual rights, Madi-
son often employed the philosophical liberalism of
John LOCKE; when he advocated localized democratic
communities, he used the classical Republican lan-
guage of ARISTOTLE, CICERO, and HARRINGTON.
Madison is also notable for his advocacy of religious
FREEDOMin Virginia. His “Memorial and Remonstrance”
provides a classic separation of CHURCH-AND-STATE IDE-
OLOGY. An EVANGELICAL CHRISTIAN, Madison saw the offi-
cial state religion of the Anglican (English) Church as
stifling and persecuting faithful Christians (especially
BAPTISTS). Religious liberty, he thought, would allow
simple Christianity to grow and flourish, making the
U.S. republic more moral and productive. Religious
diversity, like economic free-market capitalism and
political pluralism, would prevent the oppression of
one established church or monopoly industry or
MONARCHY. This becomes the American creed.
James Madison is considered the “Father of the
United States Constitution” for his pivotal role in the
Constitutional Convention and his persuasive argu-
ments for ratifying the Constitution in his FEDERALIST
PAPERS.His intellect was extremely keen, earning him
the respect and confidence of his fellow delegates. A
vast knowledge of historical politics, confederacies,
and political philosophy and theology made him an
extremely valuable member of the group that created
the U.S. government. Beginning as an ally of Alexan-
der HAMILTON, Madison became the fiercest opponent
of Hamiltonian Federalism in the 1790s. A lifelong
friend and political ally of Thomas Jefferson, Madison
displayed a cooler, more disciplined mind than the
third president.
Critics of Madisonian, pluralistic democracy dis-
parage its slow, deliberate checks and balances, but
200 years of successful constitutional history in the
United States seems to confirm the wisdom and practi-
cality of Madison’s Calvinist skepticism over human
nature, human motives, and the reality of potential
misuse of political power by sinful human beings.
Madison’s legacy is of the oldest, most stable written
constitutional government in history.Further Readings
Alley, Robert S. James Madison on Religious Liberty,intro. and
interpretations by the author. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus
Books, 1985.Madison, James 195