Marxist communism failed so miserably. Traditional
CHRISTIANpolitical thought (St. AUGUSTINE) would say it
ignored the reality of human sin; British liberalism
(John LOCKE) would say it denied NATURAL RIGHTS;
Freudian psychoanalysis would say it did not under-
stand human nature. Whatever the answer, the politi-
cal thought of Karl Marx is one of the great episodes in
Western political theory.
Further Readings
Avineri, S. The Social and Political Thought of Karl Mar x.Lon-
don: Cambridge University Press, 1968.
Balibar, Etienne. The Philosophy of Marx.1995.
Cohen, G. Karl Marx’s Theory of History: A Defense.Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978.
Derrida, Jacques. Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the
Work of Mourning, and the New International,Peggy Kamuf,
transl., intro. by Bernd Magnus and Stephen Cullenberg,
1994.
Elster, J. An Introduction to Karl Marx.Cambridge, Eng.: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1986.
———. Making Sense of Marx.Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1985.
Hunt, R. Marxism and Totalitarian Democracy,2 vols. Pittsburgh:
University of Pittsburgh Press, 1974, 1985.
Isaac, Jeffrey C. Power and Marxist Theory: A Realist View.Ithaca,
N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987.
Manuel, Frank Edward. A Requiem for Karl Marx.Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995.
McLellan, D. The Thought of Karl Marx,2nd ed. New York:
Harper & Row, 1981.
Lovell, David W. Marx’s Proletariat: The Making of a Myth.Lon-
don: Routledge, 1988.
Marxism/Marxist
The historical development of the social theories of
Karl MARXby other thinkers, and the application of
those ideas in the practices of SOCIALISTand COMMUNIST
parties and countries. The political thought of Marx
was so complex and its impact on the 20th century
was so enormous that it is natural that it would
develop in several different themes and directions.
The prevalent form of Marxism is Soviet Russian or
“orthodox” MARXISM-LENINISM. Sometimes called Stalin-
ist or state capitalism, this historical strand of Marxism
emphasizes the dominant Communist Party, the TOTALI-
TARIANcontrol of a planned economy, education, cul-
ture, science, and art by the state, and the world class
struggle and revolution. The restrictions on personal
LIBERTY(of thought, action, belief, religion) and harsh
secret police of this Soviet-style Marxism soon alien-
ated Western LEFTISTS. An alternative “Humanist” Marx-
ism emerged in the CRITICAL THEORYof the Frankfurt
School, which allowed greater DEMOCRACYand individ-
ual FREEDOMin socialism. This continued the views of
earlier thinkers who criticized Soviet communism
(such as Rosa LUXEMBURG, Leon TROTSKY, Nikolay
BUKHARIN, and others), other SOCIAL DEMOCRATICparties
of European nations (Germany, Italy, France), and the
Labour Party in Great Britain. These political thinkers
(such as Karl KAUTSKY) and movements (such as Bri-
tish Socialism) worked within the parliamentary elec-
toral system and, when gaining political power, used
it to nationalize industry, raise taxes on the wealthy, aid
labor unions, and so on. Another development in Marx-
ism is its application to economically underdeveloped
(Third World) countries through LENIN’s theory of capi-
talist IMPERIALISM. This led poor neocolonial nations in
Africa, Asia, and Latin America to have Marxist-Lenin-
ist socialist revolutions (as in China, India, Vietnam,
Iraq, Cuba, Mozambique), expelling the exploiting
imperialists and attempting socialized economics. Fi-
nally, Marxist ideas filtered down into liberal academic
fields, such as sociology, philosophy, and English, look-
ing at society in terms of the dominance of powerful
elites, EXPLOITATION, class conflict (racism, sexism, clas-
sism), and ENVIRONMENTALdegradation.
The decline of world communism has diminished
the influence of Marxism as a system and an ideology.
Its materialist emphasis on economics and fascination
with social group conflict persists in modified form in
other political thought (radical environmentalism,
FEMINISM, liberalism).Further Readings
Aronson, Ronald. After Marxism.New York: Guilford Press,
1995.
Guarasci, Richard. The Theory and Practice of American Marx-
ism, 1957–1970.Lanham, Md.: University Press of America,
1980.
Meisner, Maurice J. Marxism, Maoism and Utopianism: Eight
Essays.Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982.
Bernd Magnus and Stephen Cullenberg, eds. Whither Marxism?
Global Crises in International Perspective. Introduction.
New York: Routledge, 1995.
Wright, Anthony. Socialisms: Theories and Practices.Oxford,
Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1986.Marxism-Leninism
The 20th-century development of Karl MARX’s COMMU-
NISTtheory by V. I. LENINemphasizing worldwide CAPI-
TALIST IMPERIALISM, SOCIALISTrevolution in economically
underdeveloped countries (neocolonies), and the
decline of the advanced industrial nations. Also theMarxism-Leninism 203