House of Commons embodies this mixed ideal, as does
the U.S. Constitution (president, Senate, House of
Representatives). The CHECKS AND BALANCESof this sys-
tem are widely accepted in the MODERNperiod.
moderate
A political or IDEOLOGICAL position between LIBERAL
and CONSERVATIVE, LEFTand RIGHT, which draws upon
policy stances of both. For example, President Jimmy
CARTERwas considered a “moderate Democrat”; Presi-
dent George Bush was a “moderate REPUBLICAN.” Both
subscribed to some Conservative positions (on wel-
fare, defense, ABORTION, etc.) and some Liberal posi-
tions (CIVIL RIGHTS, taxes). As extreme ideological
positions (of Left or Right) make it difficult to win a
majority vote in democratic elections, most U.S. politi-
cians become moderate.
Modern/modernity
The historical period in the Western world from the
end of the MIDDLE AGESto the 20th century (roughly
1500–1900). Characterized by the rise of Protestant
CHRISTIANITY, political REPUBLICANISM, and INDUSTRIAL
CAPITALISM, the Modern period differs substantially
from previous ancient or CLASSICAL civilization,
Medieval society, and “POSTMODERN” contemporary life.
In political thought, Modern ideas are associated with
LIBERALISM, SOCIAL-CONTRACT theory, INDIVIDUALISM,
EQUALITY, and DEMOCRACY. The ENLIGHTENMENT in
France is considered representative of modernity. Crit-
ics of Modern views include traditional CATHOLIC
philosophy, classical Greek thought, FASCISM, Commu-
nitarianism, and some of COMMUNISM(though MARXISM
is in some ways the logical conclusion of Modern
thought). Prominent thinkers of modernity include
Thomas HOBBES, John LOCKE and Jean-Jacques
ROUSSEAU. Underlying much of the Modern perspective
is a materialistic, scientific view of life, eschewing
abstract ethical, religious, and spiritual perspectives.
Mohammed/Mahomet (570–632) Founder of
Islam; political, military, and religious leader
Considered the last prophet of God (Allah) by Mus-
lims, Mohammed grew up in Mecca, Arabia (now
Saudi Arabia). At the age of 40, he began to have
visions and revelations from an angel, which he
preached (and which were later recorded in the
Koran). These became the doctrines of Islam, includ-
ing: There is only one God (monotheism); humans
must submit to him (Islam means “submission”);
heaven and hell await everyone on God’s coming judg-
ment. Mohammed prescribed many religious duties:
frequent prayer and almsgiving, a pilgrimage to Mecca,
and forbidding of usury. Developed Islam contains
detailed prescriptions for almost every aspect of social,
family, economic, and political life.
Mohammed at first was rejected by the pagan
Arabs, but he defeated them militarily in 630. Islam
spread rapidly, and Mohammed ruled a theocracy,
which eventually spread from the Middle East to
Africa and Western Europe (the Ottoman Empire).
ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHTstill governs these regions
in various ways. Early in his career, Mohammed
reached out to the surrounding Jewish and CHRISTIAN
populations, but when they rejected his teachings,
Islam became increasingly hostile to these religions
and their states. Much of contemporary political con-
flict in the Middle East is derived from these reli-
gious/political differences. Mohammed is revered by
Muslims as the last and greatest prophet of God.monarchy
Literally, the “rule of one” person (king, queen, etc.).
ARISTOTLEdiscusses this form of government as poten-
tially the best if the one ruler is wise and good, serves
the common interest of society, and is efficient.
Because the monarch is a single governor, he or she
can make and implement decisions quickly, not having
to take time to consult others (as in an ARISTOCRACYor
DEMOCRACY). This absolute power of the monarch is
also his or her weakness; if evil (TYRANT), the king or
queen can do much more harm more quickly than a
bad ruler in a mixed government.
Monarchy is a frequent government system in the
world (kings David and Solomon in Israel; emperors in
China; sultans in Arabia; European monarchs in
France, England, etc.). Kingship dominated Europe
during the CATHOLICMiddle Ages; St. Thomas AQUINAS
wrote on CHRISTIANmonarchy and justified it on the
logic “One God; one common interest; one ruler.”
With the rise of MODERN REPUBLICAN government,
monarchy declined in Europe. Contemporary world210 moderate