should be owned privately or by the community, and
how the STATE should regulate, limit, or distribute
property.
An early treatment of the subject of property
occurs in PLATO’s Republicwhere the “Guardians” or
military are said to have no personal property
but to possess things in common. This led to the
criticism of Platonic philosophy that it advocated
COMMUNISM. In fact, Plato simply affirms the com-
mon practice of governments providing for the ma-
terial needs of soldiers (housing, clothing, food, etc.).
Other classes in Plato’s ideal Republic can own per-
sonal property.
ARISTOTLE advocates private-property ownership
(against SOCIALISM) because it enhances the purpose of
economics (sustaining human life and freeing citizens
to serve in public life) by rewarding work, making
society more orderly, and encouraging the VIRTUEof
generosity. But an overconcern with money “enslaves”
a person to one’s lowest animal impulses, for Aristotle.
Property is a “means” to a higher “end,” for him—
wealth is to be used to establish an independence that
allows one to enter politics. This “gentleman’s” atti-
tude toward money and trade continues in West-
ern political thought (James HARRINGTON, Edmund
BURKE, etc.).
The early CHRISTIAN society diminished the ab-
solute right to private property by “holding all things
in common” (Acts 2:44); this did not mean formal
state communism, but rather a sharing of goods
according to need (those with more wealth giving to
those in the church who had less) in obedience to
God’s prompting to charity. St. AUGUSTINEcommends
this practice.
St. Thomas AQUINAScombines Christian and Aris-
totelian philosophy in his discussion of property. He
adopts Aristotle’s arguments for the utility of private
ownership (orderly society, incentives for work), but
qualifies them with the biblical injunctions to see
one’s wealth as a blessing from God, to be used for
God’s purposes and within his limitations (helping the
poor, charity, generosity), or “stewardship.” Aquinas
adopts the TELEOLOGICALview that the divine-law pur-
pose of material things is to support human life, so a
person who is starving can take another’s overabun-
dance of bread, even if it violates human laws against
theft.
Modern LIBERALISM (Thomas HOBBES and John
LOCKE) emphasizes property in a CAPITALISTsense of
labor and investment. Government’s main duty is to
protect the NATURAL RIGHTSto “Life, LIBERTY, and Prop-
erty,” in Locke’s phrase. A state that unjustly violates
the individual’s right to property can be overthrown.
John Stuart MILL extends this right to property to
include intellectual ownership (of ideas, opinions,
expression).
Karl MARXpresents all of history in terms of prop-
erty, work, and economic class conflict. Systems of
property (and government) are determined by the
level of technology existing in a given society. The
means of economic production determines how
property is owned and protected. MARXISMdescribes
Western civilization in terms of primitive (tribal) com-
munism, ancient (CLASSICAL) slave society, MEDIEVAL
FEUDALISM, industrial capitalism, socialism, and COM-
MUNISM. Driven by advances in technology, Marxism
argued that history inevitably led to a communist
UTOPIAwhere production was so advanced that no one
would have to work and that goods would be in abun-
dance. This prediction did not come true in the com-
munist countries (SOVIET UNION, China, Cuba).
Contemporary discussion of property in political
thought tends to be over the proper mix of private,
free-enterprise property and public regulation of prop-
erty and business. John RAWLSprovides a theory of Lib-
eral WELFARE-STATEeconomics where private property
and enterprise are heavily regulated and taxed to pro-
vide public services and opportunities for the socially
disadvantaged. Robert NOZICKgives a CONSERVATIVE, LIB-
ERTARIANtheory of very limited state control of private
property.
Generally, in the advanced Western democracies
(Europe, the United States, Canada) a mixed economy
of private capitalist enterprise and public social welfare
produces the greatest prosperity and social JUSTICE.
The LEFT, or the liberal DEMOCRATIC PARTY, in the United
States tends to lean toward more government regula-
tion and public services, while the RIGHT, or the con-
servative REPUBLICAN PARTY, favors more unrestricted
private property and less governmental regulation of
the economy.
The extremes of wealth and poverty in the world
make property and economic development continuing
issues in political thought.Further Readings
Becker, Lawrence C. Property Rights—Philosophic Foundations.
London: Routledge, 1977.
Reeve, A. Property.Amherst, Mass.: Prometheus Books, 1986.244 property