RELIGION, and social values, explaining his popularity
among even some traditional DEMOCRATIC PARTYsup-
porters.
Further Reading
Shepherd, D., ed. Ronald Reagan: In God I Trust.Wheeling, Illi-
nois: Tyndale House Publishers, 1984.
realism
Political realism is the recognition of evil and injustice
in the nature of humanity, society, and government. A
realist acknowledges the persistent selfishness and cru-
elty in human behavior and the use of political power
to oppress and tyrannize others. Such realism is con-
trasted with political or psychological optimism, or
IDEALISM(see ENLIGHTENMENT), which believes that peo-
ple and states can be improved, civilized, and even
perfected.
The realist political tradition emerges in several
political IDEOLOGIES, mostly CONSERVATIVE. The CATHOLIC
thinker St. AUGUSTINEdraws his realistic assessment of
human nature and politics from the biblical view of
humanity as sinful and of society as full of conflict and
strife. Only the grace of God through Christ can trans-
form humans into kind, loving creatures through spiri-
tual rebirth in Jesus. Even then, the world is dominated
by evil, power struggles, crime, and war; Christians
themselves are not totally immune from being deceived
and led into wrong actions. This “CHRISTIANrealism”
continues in the Protestant theology of John CALVIN,
American Constitution Founder James MADISON, and, in
the 20th century, Reinhold NIEBUHR.
Secular realism is expressed in the RENAISSANCEItal-
ian thinker MACHIAVELLI. His assessment of human
nature and society resembles Augustinian thought but
without the hope of redemption in Christ. For Machi-
avelli, humans always desire everything (infinite
wealth, power, prestige, honor) but are frustrated by
not being able to get it, so they are mean and petty,
ready to blame others for their difficulties, especially
the government. Therefore, the STATE(or Prince) must
know how to trick and control these ignorant, self-
centered masses, using deceit, cunning, and fear. An
immoral (or “prudent”) leader is needed to fool people
and to maintain order. It is believed that both Adolf
HITLERand Joseph STALINtook lessons from Machiavel-
lian realism.
In modern Conservative thought, Edmund BURKE
displays realism in his suspicions of RADICALsocial
reformers’ optimism. The idealism of Jean-Jacques
ROUSSEAU’s theories, implemented in the disastrous
French Revolution of 1789, represent the dangers of
not having an accurate, “realistic” conception of
human nature. For Burke, humans require extensive
cultivation and civilizing to make them even moder-
ately good. This requires stable, traditional institutions
(schools, family, church, property, government) to
bring out the best in people and to suppress their nat-
ural evil impulses.
Such “RIGHT” political realism is rejected by the
LEFTISTpolitical theories that paint a more positive
image of human nature: that humanity is naturally
good and kind if only freed from authority and
restraints (ANARCHISM) or given sufficient economic
prosperity, education, and political power (SOCIAL-
ISMand COMMUNISM). This favorable view of human-
ity is shared by ARISTOTLE, Thomas JEFFERSON, and
Karl MARX. Realism sees these views as naïve and self-
righteous.Reformation
The political thought of the Protestant Reformation in
Europe in the 1500s. This view of proper CHURCH-AND-
STATErelations broke with the CATHOLIC Church (St.
Thomas AQUINAS) and was expressed by Martin LUTHER,
John CALVIN, the French HUGUENOTS, and English PURI-
TANS. In general, it emphasizes the EQUALITY of all
believers, fosters a DEMOCRATICor REPUBLICANstructure
in the government and church, and advocates LIBERTY
of individual conscience (freedom of religion). Empha-
sis on the scriptures (Bible) as the sole source of
knowledge (vs. tradition, experience, or reason) and
the spiritual unity of the churches characterized the
Reformation and its political thought. Given the large
number of churches that emerged during the Reforma-
tion (Lutheran, Reformed, BAPTIST, PRESBYTERIAN, etc.),
it is not a single movement but a collection of move-
ments that greatly changed MODERNEurope and Amer-
ica. See PROTESTANT POLITICAL THOUGHT.Further Readings
Davies, R. E. The Problem of Authority in the Continental Reform-
ers.London: Epworth Press, 1946.
Franklin, J. H. Constitutionalism and Resistance in the Sixteenth
Century.New York: Pegasus, 1969.
Grimm, H. J. The Reformation Era 1500–1650,2nd ed. New
York: Macmillan, 1973.
Williams, G. H. The Radical Reformation.Philadelphia: West-
minster Press, 1962.Reformation 255