MEDIEVAL CATHOLICtheory (St. Thomas AQUINAS) is
more positive about the possibility of rulers represent-
ing the nation’s common interest; even MONARCHY,or
the rule of one person, can represent all citizens’ con-
cerns and needs. In MODERNrepublican theory (as in
that of British liberal John LOCKEand American James
MADISON), a government can be truly representative if it
has the mechanisms of regular elections, limited terms
for state officials, and popular voting or SUFFRAGE. Most
Modern INDUSTRIAL democracies are representative in
that sense. The COMMUNISTtheories of Karl MARXand V.
I. LENINassert that a revolutionary, working-class politi-
cal party can represent the interests of the entire prole-
tariat, or workers, through STATE-operated SOCIALISM.
In representative democracies, where public offi-
cials are elected periodically, the question of howrepre-
sentatives govern arises. Edmund BURKEargued that
members of the British Parliament should be “trustee”
representatives—exercising their own best judgment
on policy issues, whether or not they agreed with the
majority of the voters. A contrasting “delegate” view is
that elected representatives should simply reflect the
preferences of their constituents. The American model
of representative democracy contains both the
“trustee” role of elected officials, trusting their judg-
ment and giving them considerable autonomy, and the
“delegate” role, which expects government representa-
tives to express generally the opinions of the voters.
Other informal groups and organizations can repre-
sent citizens’ interests in government within modern
PLURALISTIC democracies. Business and professional
associations; women’s groups, minority, and religious
organizations; ENVIRONMENTAL groups and organiza-
tions representing certain age groups (such as the
American Association of Retired Persons, or A.A.R.P.)
all affect government policy through lobbying, legisla-
tive influence, and court cases. Pluralism allows a vari-
ety of means of influence or representation.
Further Readings
Birch, A. H. Representation.New York: Praeger, 1972.
Pitkin, H. F. The Concept of Representation.Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1967.
republic
A system of government that involves the whole com-
munity (from the Latin, res publica) and rules for the
common good. In MODERNtimes, a republic is often
contrasted with MONARCHYon the one hand and with
pure DEMOCRACYon the other. Most republics are REP-
RESENTATIVEdemocracies; that is, political leaders are
elected or chosen by the majority of the people in the
nation. In this sense, Thomas JEFFERSONis considered a
typical republican thinker and the United States of
America is a typical modern republic. The specific
forms of representative government differ in various
Modern republics, but they all share a rejection of
MEDIEVALkingship and ARISTOCRACY. For the historical
origins of this ideal, see REPUBLICANISM.republican/republicanism
A political philosophy or IDEOLOGY that emphasizes
government for the common good, direct CITIZENpar-
ticipation in governing, a sense of public VIRTUE(or
personal sacrifice for the good of society), and preser-
vation of the LIBERTYand legal RIGHTSof citizens.
The earliest form of this thought comes in the
CLASSICALrepublicanism of PLATO, ARISTOTLE, and CIC-
ERO. This ancient Greek and Roman republicanism
specifically rejected the rule of one king, TYRANT, or
emperor. Just laws and policies, as well as intelligent,
virtuous citizens, required wide participation of the
population in governing. Citizens must be qualified
educationally, economically, and ethically to be res-
ponsible rulers who will establish and maintain JUS-
TICE. The view that concentrated political and
economic POWERcorrupts leaders; that wealth, luxury,
moral decadence, and tyranny come together, com-
mends a republic of simple, modest, hearty citizens
who rule together for the common good. This links
“republican virtue” to the middle-class farmers and
artisans who have discipline, decency, and healthy
instincts. A sturdy yeoman PATRIOTISM, military valor,
and basic honesty combine to ward off political and
financial intrigue, oppression, and perversion in the
STATE. The decline of both the Greek and Roman re-
publics into commercial empires that became political
oligarchies and immoral societies confirms the repub-
lican fear of opulence and power.
After the largely monarchical MIDDLE AGES, republi-
canism revived in RENAISSANCE Italy and Protestant
Europe. Again, the themes of simple, popular govern-
ment by common people were seen as a virtuous alter-
native to a corrupt and decadent monarchy, court life,
Catholicism, and tyranny. MARSILIUS OF PADUAasserted
this republican ideal in terms of popular SOVEREIGNTY.
CHRISTIANthinkers Martin LUTHERand John CALVINpre-republican/republicanism 257