and decadent, and this moral weakness was beginning
to destroy the economic, political, and military foun-
dations of the empire. Cicero warned that if Roman
culture did not return to the integrity of its social and
military virtue, it would be destroyed. Luxury, vio-
lence, sexual perversion, self-indulgence would
weaken the country and would lead to its downfall.
This Ciceronian prophecy largely came true, as the
Roman Empire declined morally, politically, economi-
cally, and, finally, militarily. The peoples it had con-
quered ultimately conquered and destroyed it.
Another aspect of Roman political thought was the
preeminence of ROMAN LAW. A vast empire could not be
ruled by a small, participatory DEMOCRACY like the
Greek POLIS. It required a uniform code of law over the
many diverse cultures within the empire. With such a
universal Roman law, officials could simply apply its
precepts and keep the peace (pax Romana). This
diminished the emphasis in Aristotle of developing the
character of citizens; even mediocre officials could
apply Roman statutes, as long as they could read Latin.
This continued in the MEDIEVAL CATHOLICChurch tradi-
tion of CANON LAW, English common law, and Ameri-
can CONSTITUTIONALlaw. In each case, the quality of the
CITIZENs was less important than the quality of the
laws. Cicero even claimed that reason and the best
knowledge of philosophers was realized in Roman law.
These themes of Roman virtue and law were
expressed in the histories written by SENECAand TACITUS
and in the political writings of POLYBIUS, MARCUS AURE-
LIUS, and Cato. In all cases, these reflected the classical
Greek philosophers and, rather unoriginally, adapted
them to Roman civilization. So, for example, Cicero
endorses Aristotle’s concept of a MIXED CONSTITUTION
(blending MONARCHY, ARISTOCRACY, and democracy).
Roman political thought greatly affected later West-
ern political theory, especially CLASSICAL REPUBLICANISM,
the common-law tradition, constitutionalism, and the
American Revolution and republic.
Further Readings
Beard, W. M., and Crawford, M. H. Rome in the Late Republic.
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985.
Syme, R. Tacitus.Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1958.
Romanticism
A philosophical and literary movement in the 18th and
19th century (Europe) that emphasized the impor-
tance of art, nature, emotions, and childlike innocence
in human life and society. In political theory, it is
expressed in Jean-Jacques ROUSSEAUwith a concern for
human sentiment (as opposed to reason), COMMUNITAR-
IANpolitics (as opposed to Lockean contractual gov-
ernment and INDIVIDUALISM), and a belief in the basic
goodness and innocence of people (as opposed to the
REALISM of St. AUGUSTINE, MACHIAVELLI, and others).
Romanticism is a reaction against the MODERN, scien-
tific rationalism of 17th- and 18th-century ENLIGHTEN-
MENT, which it regards as cold, calculating, and
unfeeling. It embraces human emotions, spontaneous
acts of love, crying in public, and the FREEDOMof the
imagination (against the confining rules of science,
CLASSICALrationality, and capitalist PROGRESS). Conse-
quently, romanticism is often identified with the “femi-
nine”—soft, caring, spontaneous, emotional—while
Modern, SOCIAL-CONTRACT LIBERALISM is portrayed as
“masculine”—formal, legal, practical. Many of the
English Romantic poets (Shelley, Keats) extol natural
beauty, the countryside, and the virtues of women and
children. Fantasy, folk art, peasants, and the mentally
retarded are portrayed as innocent and virtuous,
attaining a contentment and happiness lost to the cal-
culating, mechanical Modern civilization. Rejection of
technology and government as dehumanizing often
accompanies Romantic political thought. In Germany,
Friedrich Schliermacher and Friedrich Schlegel
expressed Romantic, nostalgic ideals, as did COLERIDGE
and CARLYLE in Great Britain, and THOREAU in the
United States.
Partly looking to an ideal MEDIEVALpast (of simple,
natural, rural life; uncomplicated HIERARCHICAL poli-
tics; and unquestioned religious faith), and partly
encouraging a “liberated” future (of spontaneous feel-
ings, emotions, and relationships), Romanticism con-
tributed to the rise of NATIONALISM, FASCISM, AND
ANARCHISM. Looking both to comfortable, quaint tradi-
tion and to a new world order of love, beauty, and har-
mony, Romantics embraced such diverse figures and
movements as Napoleon, COMMUNISM, free love, HOMO-
SEXUALITY, Wagnerian opera, and peasant revolution.
When these failed to produce the Romantic UTOPIAof
peace and love, the blame was often assigned to brutal
(masculine) authority, INDUSTRIALISM, commercial
exploitation, and the oppressive family. Consequently,
Romanticism was not a coherent political movement
or ideology, but it affected several other social move-
ments. Even WELFARE-STATELiberalism and SOCIALISM
contain Romantic elements, with sympathy for theRomanticism 263