state control of every aspect of human life (as in the
SOVIET UNION) to the milder governmental regulation of
the economy in WELFARE-STATElegislation (as in Great
Britain and Europe) Modern socialism has existed in
some form since SAINT-SIMONand Karl MARXeach wrote
on the subject.
The general argument for economic socialism (or
political control of property) is that material wealth is
a social product and activity that involves the coopera-
tion of the whole community rather than a private
right of autonomous individuals. So, the control and
benefits of that social economy should be by the soci-
ety at large rather by than a few rich and powerful
individuals or groups. From this logic, the state can be
the instrument of the whole community to order all
economic activity for the common good. Socialist
thought tends to be EGALITARIAN, that is, to believe that
each individual is equal to all the rest and is deserving
of EQUALITYof treatment, opportunities, and benefits.
So, for example, socialized medicine (as in Great
Britain) means a health-care system in which everyone
receives equal medical services, regardless of their
income, status, age, and so on. Only human need and
the resources available determine the receiving of med-
ical treatment. The limits on that social benefit are
made by overall social resources (number of doctors,
prescriptions, hospitals, etc.) and overall social priori-
ties (health care vis-à-vis education, housing, food,
clothing, entertainment, and so on).
Socialist theories and systems vary widely over the
extent of private property and trade allowed, the state
management of the economy, and the community reg-
ulation of individual behavior (see COMMUNISM).
PROUDHONadvocated an agricultural commune style of
society (like the contemporary Israeli kibbutz); MARX-
ISMfocused on advanced, mass industrial production;
social democracy blends private entrepreneurship with
state regulation for the economy and state ownership
of key industries (e.g., steel, telecommunications,
transportation, etc.). In all cases, socialism seeks to
restrict the FREEDOMand LIBERTYof individuals and
businesses for the purpose of benefiting the whole
society (though Jean-Jacques ROUSSEAU’s COMMUNITAR-
IANideal claims to give everyone more liberty through
such state control).
Socialist ideas appear throughout Western political
thought and practice: PLATO’s Republicadvocated com-
mon property for the “guardian” (military) class; early
CHRISTIANS (Acts 2) held “all things in common”;
MEDIEVAL FEUDALISMinvolved considerable common or
GUILDproperty. Qualifying these views were ARISTO-
TLE’s critique of Plato (saying that private wealth was
more efficient and contributed to the virtue of gen-
erosity); St. Thomas AQUINAS asserting that private
property is allowable if existing within the bounds of
Christian charity and NATURAL LAW; and John LOCKE’s
claim that individual ownership advances PROGRESS
and prosperity.
Most of 19th- and 20th-century socialist ideas were
attempts to ameliorate the harsh working conditions
and poverty of the urban working class. A Christian
socialist movement in Great Britain and the United
States (e.g., Robert OWEN, Charles SHELDON) applied
Christian ETHICSto capitalist economics. Most socialist
movements were radically secular, however, and
emphasized purely worldly notions of class EXPLOITA-
TIONand JUSTICE. Arguments that workers created most
of the wealth in society and therefore deserved to
receive most of it led to often violent rebellion and
social REVOLUTION. The idea that capitalist “property is
theft” inflamed workers’ revolt and resentment. Led
by dynamic figures such as V.I. Lenin, MAO TSE-TUNG,
and Fidel Castro, RADICAL socialist principles were
implemented in Russia, China, and Cuba. In each case,
the promised prosperity, freedom, and elimination of
ALIENATIONfailed to appear. Instead of a more produc-
tive, rational, and efficient economy, pure socialism’s
control from a central state created inefficient, waste-
ful, corrupt, and oppressive economics and politics.
The REALISMthat doubted humanity’s ability to produce
heaven on earth seemed to be confirmed by the failure
of socialism and communism.
Still, socialist ideals continue to be developed
through CRITICAL THEORYand the NEW LEFT, and MODER-
AT E socialism exists in every industrialized Western
democracy through governmental regulation of the
economy, public services (education, housing, health
care), and programs for the poor, aged, and infirm.
Other social movements, such as ENVIRONMENTALISM,
FEMINISM, and LIBERALISM, have meshed with socialist
ideas.
The main premise of socialism is that people will
work harder and be more creative, kind, and happy if
all their basic material needs are taken care of by soci-
ety. A popular phrase among socialists was that the
state would paternalistically take care of its people
“from cradle to grave.” Critics of this socialist premise
(St. AUGUSTINE, MACHIAVELLI, John CALVIN, Reinhold
NIEBUHR) argue that such social welfare, absent of
incentives and punishments, will just make people280 socialism/socialist