Sovereignty, for Suárez, is the absolute power of the
state (monarch) to make laws, in conformity with
divine and natural law, for the common good. A sover-
eign is not subject to the law (as in Jean BODIN, he or
she “is” the law); although the sovereign rules in the
interest of the people and thereby with their CONSENT,
the populace does not choose the rulers or have a right
to overthrow them (unless the ruler is a Protestant or
becomes a TYRANTwho seeks to destroy the commu-
nity). A nation, as a collective, has a natural right to
defend itself against either foreign invaders or a tyran-
nical leader. On this basis, Suarez argued in A Defence
of the Catholic and Apostolic Faith against the Errors of
the Anglican Sect(1612) that the people of England
should overthrow the Protestant King James I.
Suárez modifies the CONCILIARISM of WILLIAM OF
OCKHAM, arguing for the supreme authority of the pope
over church councils and secular kings and queens.
Suárez held the professorship of theology at the
University of Coimbra in Spain. Most of his writing
derives from his university lectures.
Further Reading
Wilenius, Reijo. The Social and Political Theory of Francisco
Suárez.Helsinki: 1963.
suffrage
Voting and the right to vote or to participate in choos-
ing governmental officials by election. Suffrage is con-
sidered a basic RIGHTof CITIZENSHIPin a DEMOCRACYor
REPUBLIC.
During the MODERNperiod, the tendency has been
to extend the suffrage to more people. In 18th-century
Britain and the United States only adult, white males
owning a certain amount of PROPERTYwere allowed to
vote. Gradually, the suffrage was extended to working
and poor men, women, blacks, and younger people. In
the United States, AFRICAN-AMERICAN ex-slaves were
guaranteed the right to vote after the Civil War (1865),
women gained the suffrage in 1920, and the voting age
was reduced to 18 in 1971. The right to vote can be
taken away because of insanity, being convicted of a
felony, or being dishonorably discharged from the mili-
tary.
In most REPUBLICANcountries, suffrage is not con-
sidered LEGITIMATEunless there is more than one candi-
date to choose from and the voting is done by secret
ballot.
Sumner, William Graham (1840–1910) U.S.
sociologist and political theoristA leading advocate of SOCIAL DARWINISM, Sumner was
influenced by Herbert SPENCER. His ideas, especially in
the book What Social Classes Owe to Each Other
(1884), reflect a belief in INDIVIDUALISM, social competi-
tion, and CAPITALISM. The struggle for economic suc-
cess (like the competition of species in Darwin’s
evolutionary theory) leads to the strong, intelligent,
and hard-working getting ahead, while the weak, stu-
pid, and lazy are defeated. This system in good, for
Sumner, as it aids economic and social PROGRESS. He,
therefore, opposes social-welfare programs as reward-
ing the “bad” (poor) people and harming the “good”
(rich) people. He especially hates social reformers,
who self-righteously claim to care about the poor and
disadvantaged when their programs really indulge lazi-
ness, sin, and their own self-interest. “Certain ills,” he
wrote, “belong to the hardships of human life.”
Emphasizing individual FREEDOM, Sumner wrote, “A
free man in a free democracy has no duty whatever
toward other men of the same rank and standing,
except respect, courtesy, and good will.... In a free
state every man is held and expected to take care of
himself and his family, to make no trouble for his
neighbor, and to contribute his full share to public
interests and common necessities.”
Sumner’s ideas accompanied LAISSEZ-FAIREthought
during early INDUSTRIALISMin the United States. He
taught at Yale University and was an ordained priest in
the Episcopal Church. His philosophy of limited gov-
ernment welfare programs, probusiness competition,
and individual enterprise continues in CONSERVATIVE,
REPUBLICAN PARTY IDEOLOGY.Supreme Court, U.S.
The highest court of the judicial branch of the United
States government established by Article III of the U.S.
CONSTITUTION. Balancing the legislative (Congress)
branch and the executive (President) branch of gov-
ernment, this reflects the CHECKS AND BALANCES in
James MADISON’s theory of FEDERALISM.
As the highest tribunal in the country, the U.S.
Supreme Court has jurisdiction over legal cases
affecting constitutional interpretation, federal laws,
and relations between the national and state govern-Supreme Court, U.S. 287