ernments and societies reject terrorism as a legitimate
means of political expression and change; often, it dis-
credits the groups perpetuating the terrorism and
reduces their effectiveness. Most groups that employ
terrorism do so because they do not have sufficient
power to affect society in a more productive manner.
Further Reading
Laqueur, W. Terrorism.Boston: Little, Brown, 1977.
theocracy
Literally “government of God” (Greek), theocracywas
first mentioned by Jewish historian Flavius Josephus
to denote God’s rule over his people of Israel. Unlike
other ancient civilizations, the Bible describes the Jews
as having no earthly king, but the Lord Jehovah as its
leader. Even after the Jews took kings (Saul, David),
their God continued to rule them through divine mes-
sages and guidance (especially through the prophets,
as Isaiah and Jeremiah).
Other CLASSICALcivilizations (Egypt, Rome, Tibet)
had theocracies, but these relied on the human ruler
being considered a god.
ISLAMICpolitical thought usually sees the Muslim
state as a theocracy, the state either ruled directly by
clerics (as in Iran) or under the religious law of the
KORAN(Qur’an).
CHRISTIANpolitical thought occasionally conceives
of the state as a theocracy, especially in Eastern Ortho-
dox churches. Western Christianity (St. AUGUSTINE)
typically separates the secular government from the
church but admits of influence from the “higher law”
of Christ on the state. MEDIEVAL CATHOLICkingdoms
saw greater theocratic qualities through the powerful
influence of the popes, but St. Thomas AQUINASadvo-
cates considerable autonomy for the human law of the
STATE(so long as it does not directly contradict NATU-
RAL LAWor divine law).
MODERNProtestant Christianity advances a stricter
separation of CHURCH AND STATE (in REFORMATION
thinker Martin LUTHER and BAPTISTs), but Calvinist
churches (like the English PURITANOliver CROMWELL)
conceive of closer integration of religion and politics.
The United States of America was partially founded by
English Puritans (such as John WINTHROP) who applied
this Christian-commonwealth view.
In the Modern democratic world, a theocracy is
often disparaged as harsh, intolerant, and overly CON-
SERVATIVE.
Thomism/Thomist
The development of St. Thomas AQUINAS’s political
thought from the time of his death to the present.
Sometimes called neo-Thomism, this perspective ap-
plies the NATURAL LAW, CATHOLICview of HUMAN NATURE,
society, and politics to contemporary issues, especially
the social challenges of MODERN INDUSTRIALISM. Thomist
theory has often been the official IDEOLOGY of the
Roman Catholic Church as expressed by the curia and
the pope (including most recently Pope John Paul II).
Although this traditional perspective has diminished
somewhat in the church since the Second Vatican
Council (1962–65), it remains a dominant force in
Catholic doctrine and education.
Like St. Thomas Aquinas’s integration of ARISTOTLE’s
philosophy with CHRISTIANITY, later Thomism views
humanity in terms of its teleology or perfection as an
intellectual and moral being. Politically, this relies on a
society and a state that promotes the common good.
Although private PROPERTY and CAPITALISM can con-
tribute to society, they properly exist within social and
political regulation and control, according to natural
and divine law.
Thomism, especially since Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical
Aeterni Patris(1879) against Modernism, is an alter-
native social philosophy to LIBERALISM and COMMUN-
ISM. Prominent advocates of this third way include Eng-
lishman G. K. Chesterton (1874–1936) and Frenchman
Jacques Maritain (1882–1973). The latter’s open Tho-
mism was compatible with Liberal pluralistic DEMO-
CRATIC society but was still critical of capitalist
INDIVIDUALISM. Conforming to LEFTIST attacks on EX-
PLOITATIONand social ALIENATIONbut from a religious
perspective, this recent Thomist thought underlies
much of contemporary U.S. Catholic social philosophy,
which combines economic and political Liberalism
with moral and ethical conservatism.Further Readings
Gilby, T. Between Community and Society: A Philosophy and The-
ology of the State.London: Longmans, 1953.
Welty, E. A Handbook of Christian Social Ethics,G. Kirstein,
transl. New York: Freiburg Herder, 1960–64.Thompson, Kenneth W. (1921– ) U.S.
scholar; political philosopher of international politics
A leading writer on the ETHICSand theories of interna-
tional relations, Thompson’s ideas reflect the Christian
REALISMof Reinhold NIEBUHRand Hans Morgenthau. The
reality of human sin and evil in power politics requiresThompson, Kenneth W. 293