lence in it (economic class warfare) that seizing the
STATEviolently is hardly increasing the total level of
violence and may in fact be diminishing it. Fascism
extols violence and war as bringing out heroism, brav-
ery, self-sacrifice, and devotion to country (PATRIOTISM).
NAZI Germany portrayed warfare as displaying the
superiority of the master race. Algerian Marxist Frantz
Fanon in the 1960s celebrated the anti-French vio-
lence of national liberation warfare as fulfilling and lib-
erating of the human spirit. Islam sees a “holy war”
against non-Muslims as serving God.
Objections to political violence argue that such
harmful deeds dehumanize both the victims and
the perpetrators of violent actions. Deliberately hurt-
ing others violates God’s COMMANDMENTS against
murder and creates further resentment and warfare.
Moral and political change can be effected by peace-
ful means such as nonviolent CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE.
Indian leader GANDHI and U.S. civil rights leader
Martin Luther KING, Jr., employed peaceful resistance
to change society. Based on the CHRISTIANprinciple,
“Do not return evil for evil, but overcome evil with
good” (Matthew 5:39), this appeal to persuasion, rea-
son, and prayer does not ignore injustice but avoids
making it worse by resorting to violence. This pacifist
perspective regards all harming of humans as making
the situation worse and perpetuating injustice and
pain.
The MODERATEapproach to political violence admits
that it is a part of the world but strives to minimize it
through the RULE OF LAW, negotiations, and so on. If
government is democratic by the CONSENTof the gov-
erned, violent revolt should be less likely. If trade
agreements, treaties, and international organizations
function properly, war should only be a “last resort” in
defense against aggression. A violent revolution is only
justified (in John LOCKE’s theory) by absolute TYRANNY
and government injustice. The state’s violent appara-
tus-policy army should only be used against criminals
who violate the RIGHTSof others.
Much of political thought addresses the subject of
violence, and governments’ attitudes toward violence
explain much of their conduct.
virtue
Virtue is an important concept in many political theo-
ries, but it has several meanings: public and private,
religious, social, and moral. In general, Western politi-
cal thought conceives of virtueas the individual sacri-
fice of personal INTERESTor preference for the common
good or some higher moral standard, so virtueserves
as a value for promoting public JUSTICE, harmony, and
goodness.
CLASSICALpolitical philosophy understood virtue in
terms of human relationships: both functioning and
just. The original Greek term for “virtue,” areté,meant
the qualities necessary for a thing to perform its func-
tion or duty. A good knife has the “virtue” of sharpness
because its function is to cut. A bad knife (or a knife
lacking virtue) is dull because it cannot perform its job
well. SOvirtuein this sense means “competence.”
PLATOapplies this functional standard of virtue to
individual CITIZENs in the state. He claims, in The
Republic,that every society needs three classes of peo-
ple: rulers, soldiers, and workers. Each group needs
certain virtues to perform well. The virtue of rulers is
wisdom, required to govern justly. The virtue of the
military soldier is courage, needed to defend the coun-
try well. People working in the economy (production,
sales, banking) need the virtue of moderation to do
their work well. The STATE, for Plato, should recognize
and train each person in his or her function and virtue
to create justice. Virtue, then, serves the whole com-
munity, not just private desires.
ARISTOTLE adds moral virtue to Plato’s scheme: a
virtue governing all human relationships. The ideal of
this virtue is the Golden Mean, or habitually choosing
the right action between extremes. For example, in
regard to humor, the Golden Mean is wit, or knowing
when and how to be funny, between the deficiency of
boorishness (never being funny) and the excess of buf-
foonery (being funny all the time). Such personal
virtue makes for pleasant, ethical human relationships
and social harmony. For Aristotle, the cultivation of
such virtue required education in the family, the state,
and friendship. Politically, such virtue helps the POLIS
to operate smoothly.
Roman notions of virtue, as in CICERO, emphasize
this public-spirited quality of classical thought. The
main civic virtues of the Roman Empire were military
honor and patriotic sacrifice to the realm. Inculcated
by example and training, Roman virtue was exempli-
fied in the noble soldier-statesman, like Julius CAESAR.
CHRISTIANvirtues focus on biblical moral conduct
between the individual, God, and other people. St.
AUGUSTINE, St. Thomas AQUINAS, and others wrote on
the Christian virtues of prudence, temperance, forti-
tude, and justice (cardinal virtues) and faith, hope,
and charity (theological virtues). For MEDIEVAL and302 virtue