Besides current political analysis, Will has written
several serious books of political philosophy, including
The Pursuit of Virtueand Statecraft and Soulcraft.He
received a Ph.D. in political philosophy at Princeton
University. He is one of the few political commentators
in the United States who brings a classical education to
discussion of current events.
Further Readings
Will, George F. The Pursuit of Virtue.New York: Simon & Schus-
ter, 1982.
Will, George F. Statecraft and Soulcraft.New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1983.
William of Ockham (Occam) (1280–
1349) English cleric and political philosopher
An early proponent of government by the CONSENTof
the governed, SOCIAL CONTRACT, and separation of
CHURCH AND STATE, Ockham criticized the MEDIEVAL
CATHOLICpopes’ encroachment on civil rule. Ockham
was educated at Oxford University but spent much of
his life in Bavaria. For Ockham, the STAT E and the
church are separate, autonomous, if related institu-
tions. The state is primarily concerned with protecting
citizens from criminals and foreign invaders; the
church is to deal with spiritual matters (worship, reli-
gious teaching, etc.). The division of temporal govern-
ment and church function was later adopted by
Protestant Reformers John CALVINand Martin LUTHER.
Ockham sees all Christians as members of both church
and state, espouses divine law, and firmly believes that
Christ supervises both governmental and religious
institutions.
Like John LOCKElater, Ockham sees both PROPERTY
as a consequence of the fall of man from paradise and
the state’s duty to protect the NATURAL RIGHTto prop-
erty ownership. He opposes any idea of COMMUNISM
as inappropriate to either paradise (where Adam
and Eve simply used nature) or the current world
(where private ownership is necessary to social
order). Also like Locke, Ockham perceives SOVER-
EIGNTYas originally in the government. Once that
social contract is made, however, later generations
must obey the state, and there is not a right to revo-
lution except in cases of extreme criminality on the
part of the rulers.
Ockham adopts St. Thomas AQUINAS’s division of
divine law, natural law, and positive law. His criticism
of the Roman See led to his censure by the pope and
his defection to the court of Emperor Louis of the HOLY
ROMAN EMPIRE, along with the minister general of the
Order of St. Francis. His polemical writings greatly
influenced later LIBERAL and REFORMATION political
thought.Further Reading
McGrade, A. S. The Political Thought of William of Ockham.Lon-
don: Cambridge University Press, 1974.Williams, Roger (1603–1683) English/Ameri-
can minister and statesman
Known chiefly for his advocacy of religious FREEDOM
or LIBERTY, Williams was banished from PURITANNew
England and established an independent colony
(Providence, Rhode Island). Becoming a BAPTIST,he
wrote on the separation of CHURCH AND STATE, tolera-
tion for Quakers and Jews in his new colony, and lib-
erty of conscience. The freedom, INDIVIDUALISM, and
fierce independence of Williams’s creed became char-
acteristic of the state of Rhode Island and soon of all
America.
Williams, educated at Cambridge University, fre-
quently traveled between America and England. His
acquaintances included John MILTON and Oliver
CROMWELL. In North America, he was known for his
fair and just relations with the Native American tribes
in his area; he learned their language and negotiated a
peace treaty that ended the Pequot War. He was gover-
nor of Rhode Island from 1654 to 1657.Further Readings
Brockunier, S. H. Irrepressible Democrat: Roger Williams.New
York: Ronald Press, 1940.
Garrett, J. Roger Williams: Witness Beyond Christendom.London:
Macmillan, 1970.Wilson, Woodrow (1856–1924) U.S. presi-
dent, Progressive reformer, and peace advocate
Wilson’s political thought represents the Progressive
Era of the DEMOCRATIC PARTY(1890s–1920s). These
policies of New Freedom, as Wilson called them,
were the beginning of Liberal federal social programs
in the United States (regulation of business; support
for labor unions; WELFARE-STATEbenefits for the poor
and disabled; safety, wage, and hour legislation forWilson, Woodrow 307