In the British liberal tradition of HOBBESand LOCKE,
legitimate political authority comes from a SOCIAL CON-
TRACTamong the people who submit to authority by
the “CONSENTof the governed.” Unjust authority then
becomes that which we did not make ourselves or con-
sent to, only voluntary, informed submission to
authority being legitimate and democratic.
In COMMUNISTor MARXISTtheory, political authority
comes from economics and history; the social class
that controls economic production also commands
political authority, and in turn is controlled by tech-
nology. So the “DICTATORSHIPof the proletariat (work-
ing class)” is just during the socialist stage of history.
For FASCIST(e.g., NAZI) theory, authority is rooted in
the race and nation and concentrated in the leader
who uses power with no restraints. The STATEbecomes
the ultimate authority and is almost worshiped as a
god. Various radical theories want to place authority in
the outcasts of society and in those least prepared to
rule (educationally, economically, politically) to dimin-
ish the preponderance of authority.
Most political thinkers see authority as necessary to
social order, peace, and prosperity. The problem is how
to establish good, just, respected authority. Education,
ethics, and healthy family and economic life are seen
as contributing to this.
Further Readings
Arendt, J. What Is Authority? In Between Past and Future.Cleve-
land and New York: Viking, 1968.
Flathman, R. The Practice of Political Authority: Authority and the
Authoritative.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.
Friedrich, C. J., ed. Nomos I: Authority.Cambridge, Mass.: Har-
vard University Press, 1958.
Raz, J. The Authority of Law.Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979.
Watt, E. D. Authority.London: Croom Helm, 1982.
Weber, M. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization
(1922), A. R. Henderson and T. Parsons, transl. New York:
Macmillan, 1947.
Wolff, R. P. In Defense of Anarchism.New York: Harper & Row,
1970.
autonomy/autonomous
The idea that a person or group or nation is independ-
ent, separate, and self-sufficient. For ARISTOTLE, this
involved a rich variety of relationships: in family, soci-
ety, friendship, active CITIZENSHIP, and religious con-
templation. Only someone connected in all these ways
has everything a rational human being needs and so is
self-sufficient. For most of Western political thought,
the idea of individual autonomy is seen as a deceptive
fiction, as individuals are actually dependent on so
many others (economically, educationally, emotionally,
spiritually).
A group’s autonomy implies its independence from
others, especially from its perceived antagonists. So,
black Muslims claim autonomy from the white Ameri-
can power structure; FEMINISTand lesbian movements
assert autonomy from men. National autonomy, or a
country’s SOVEREIGNTY, argues for a nation’s FREEDOM
and independence from other countries’ control over
their economic or political affairs. As the world
becomes more interdependent technologically, eco-
nomically, and politically, national autonomy becomes
less prevalent or realistic.
According to the NATURAL LAWview of St. Thomas
AQUINAS, individuals and groups are inevitably related
(to nature, society, God) whether they recognize it or
not. Such an objective view of our condition differs
from the autonomy perspective that regards individu-
als as self-determining. The question for much of
political theory, then, is how much independence (per-
sonal or national) is possible within an interdependent
reality. The United States has tried to reconcile this by
allowing considerable private space (such as freedom
of belief, movement, choice) while recognizing the
complex interdependence of modern society.Awakening
A religious revival that brings social and political
effects. For example, THE GREAT AWAKENING that
occurred in America from 1740 to 1770 democratized
Christianity in the colonies and prepared the way for
the American Revolution. This occurred by the rise of
EVANGELICALministers (often ordinary Christians) who
attracted more public attention than the established
clergy. This broke down the hierarchy and AUTHORITY
of the church, increased democratic self-government of
the congregations, and prepared the American mind
for political DEMOCRACY. Whether attributed to divine
inspiration or social change, the massive religious con-
versions, deepened morality, and individual responsi-
bility of such revivals always have social and political
consequences.
After the American Revolution (1776) and ratifica-
tion of the United States CONSTITUTION(1787), another
religious revival occurred, commonly called the Sec-
ond Great Awakening. Lasting from 1790 to 1830, this
move of the Holy Spirit spread across the western fron-Awakening 25