philosophy, art, and religion. Bloch distinguishes
between concrete and abstract utopias, the former
being those utopic visions that are grounded in the
social and economic reality of the historical age.
Marx’s own utopia in which EXPLOITATIONis ended is
just one, albeit the most important one, of the possi-
ble concrete utopias. In this way, Bloch retains
his Marxist identity by insisting on the necessity for
grounding, although not reducing, thought and ideals
in the real circumstance of society and by characteriz-
ing history as a TELEOLOGICALprocess that ends be-
yond capitalism. Bloch’s brand of Marxism is made
distinct by his insistence on the dynamic nature of
reality, history, and human thought and by his explicit
rendering of the utopian aspects of Marxist theory.
His drawing attention to the role of the subjective and
his deep analysis of the subjective are perhaps his
most important contribution to Marxist scholarship
in the 20th century.
Bloch was born to Jewish parents in Ludwigshfen
in Germany. His father was a railway official. He stud-
ied philosophy, physics, and music at the University of
Munich, completed his doctorate in 1909, and moved
to Heidelburg, where he met and worked with the aes-
thetician and Marxist Georg Lukacs. Lukacs was the
most important influence on Bloch’s own work. In
1933, Bloch left Germany because of the rise of
Nazism and made his way to the United States, where
he lived until after World War II. In 1948, he took a
professorship at the University of Leipzig in what was
then East Germany. His relations with the officials of
the communist government grew steadily worse (he
was prevented from publishing, and his work was con-
demned), and in 1961 he defected to West Germany.
There he was appointed professor of philosophy at
Tubingen. He died in 1977.
Further Reading
Hudson, W. The Marxist Philosophy of Ernst Bloch.New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1982.
Bodin, Jean (1529–1596) French political
philosopher
Bodin represents and encapsulates THOMIST political
theory of the late MIDDLE AGESin Europe. He is best
known for his writings on SOVEREIGNTY, which con-
tributed to the absolutist authority of French kings (as
Louis XIV). But his identification of absolute political
power with the state ruler does not preclude the distri-
bution of social influence in different groups. So, while
Bodin says that the MONARCHYhas absolute sovereignty
or power to make or overrule any law, the monarchy
exists within a “commonweal” of society, different
classes and interests. The wise and good ruler respects
the common good and representatives of other orders
(estates, corporations, colleges, the church). After ARIS-
TOTLE, Bodin acknowledges different forms of govern-
ment (monarchy, ARISTOCRACY, polity) and their
corruption (TYRANNY, oligarchy, DEMOCRACY) and insists
that a “just” government of any form can be popular in
serving the common good. A king has great authority
but is limited by divine law and God. An awesome
responsibility rests on rulers because abuse of power
produces fear, hatred, dissension, and destruction. The
chief end of the commonwealth, exemplified by the
governors, should be religious piety, JUSTICE, valor,
honor, VIRTUE, and goodness. Suspicious of the com-
mon peoples’ greed and vanity, Bodin opposed demo-
cratic government. Humans, as St. Thomas AQUINAS
asserted, are between the beasts and the angels and
only reach goodness through careful education and
moral development. After PLATO, he saw the common-
wealth reflecting human nature with “understand-
ing”—the highest virtue—followed by reason, the
anger desiring power and revenge, and—the lowest—
brutish desire and lust. If the higher faculties do not
rule the lower instincts, chaos ensues.
A devout and mystical CHRISTIAN, Bodin viewed this
world within a larger cosmic context of spiritual
beings and warfare. A wholesome society must be
aware of dark, demonic spirits who are opposed to
Christ. Bodin’s last published work dealt with witch-
craft and its effect on politics and society. Although
the government should take care that the economic
needs of its people are satisfied, this should be fol-
lowed by concern for their ethical and religious needs,
as the Commonwealth’s ultimate goal is to bring peo-
ple to “divine contemplation of the fairest and most
excellent object that can be thought or imagined”
[Christ]. A CONSERVATIVEFrench CATHOLIC, Bodin nev-
ertheless encouraged tolerance for French Protestant
Christians and opposed King Henry III’s persecution of
the HUGUENOTS.
Bodin is recognized as a brilliant, eclectic political
thinker. He studied widely in law, history, mathemat-
ics, metaphysical philosophy, several languages, and
astronomy before entering French political and reli-
gious life. His major work, The Six Books of a Common-Bodin, Jean 35