knit elite revolutionary party was very authoritarian
but claimed to represent the interests and goals of
the revolutionary working class. Lenin described its
philosophy as “democratic centralism”—democratic
formulation of political goals but centralized adminis-
tration of those policies. It is sometimes blamed for the
autocratic and TOTALITARIANform that Soviet commu-
nism later took, especially under Joseph STALIN.
Further Reading
Shapiro, L. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union.New York:
Random House, 1960.
Bonhoeffer, Dietrich (1906–1945) German
theologian, political philosopher, and anti-Nazi activist
A Lutheran minister, Bonhoeffer adopted a view of
religion and politics more akin to that of John CALVIN.
He insisted that the church uphold CHRISTIANmoral
standards and hold the government accountable to
them (to “call sin by its name”). This led him to criti-
cize the NAZIregime from the pulpit, which led to his
arrest in 1943 and execution in 1945. He was a leader
in The Confessing Church in Germany, which resisted
HITLER’s government.
In his book, Ethics,Bonhoeffer asserts that CHURCH
AND STATEare related by being both under the authority
of Christ but with different, if complimentary, roles in
the world. The STATE’s function is to punish evil
(crime) and promote good (virtue). It does this
through the legal system and moral public education.
But to do this, the government must know what
morality is, which it can only learn from religion, or
the church. Hence, the church (or “spiritual office”) is
distinct from the state but is necessary to it. In the
sense of St. AUGUSTINE, the church advises the govern-
ment. The state should respect and support the church
but leave it alone in matters of faith. The government
oversteps its legitimate role when it interferes with the
church’s spiritual and doctrinal autonomy. This is
where Bonhoeffer’s church ran afoul of the German
Nazi state. Hitler tried to impose “Aryan Christianity”
on the German Christian church, which subordinated
traditional theology to FASCISTpolitical ideology. Bon-
hoeffer and The Confessing Church resisted this and
attacked the Nazi Party for its crimes. This he saw was
as a duty of the church of Christ. “It is part of the
Church’s office of guardianship that she call sin by its
name and that she shall warn men against sin; for
‘righteousness exalteth a nation,’ both in time and in
eternity, ‘but sin is perdition for the people,’ both tem-
poral and eternal perdition (Proverbs 14:34). If the
Church did not do this, she would be incurring part of
the guilt for the blood of the wicked (Ezekiel 3:17).
This warning against sin is delivered to the congrega-
tion openly and publically... not to improve the
world, but to summon it to believe in Jesus Christ and
to bear witness to the reconciliation which has been
accomplished through Him and to His dominion.”
During a time when Nazi propaganda was deceiving
many in Germany (calling mass murder ethnic cleans-
ing, and military aggression national liberation) Bon-
hoeffer insisted that the church “call sin by its name”
(murder is murder, theft is theft, etc.), even if it leads
to persecution. This view of Christianity as a moral
witness in the political world affected much later LIB-
ERAL and EVANGELICAL church activity in the public
arena (especially in the United States) after World War
II. So, besides being a prominent martyr, Dietrich Bon-
hoeffer developed an important perspective on religion
and politics in the MODERNworld. Educated in Ger-
many at the universities of Tubingen and Berlin, he
attended Union Theological Seminary in New York.Further Readings
Bethge, E. Dietrich Bonhoeffer.New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
de Gruchy, John W., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Dietrich
Bonhoeffer.Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press,
1999.
Green, Clifford, J. Bonhoeffer: A Theology of Sociality.Grand
Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1999.Bracton, Henry de (1210–1268) British jurist
Henry de Bracton (Henry of Bracton) was a long-serv-
ing British judge who wrote the seminal work on
MEDIEVALEnglish common law. Bracton’s treatise, On
the Laws and Customs of England,remained the main
interpretation of British law until the mid-1700s. He
also served as a clergyman and ended his career as
chancellor of Exeter Cathedral.
Bracton was born in Devon, and his family name is
alternately Bratton or Bradtone. He studied law at
Oxford and became a judge under Henry III. By the
time he entered the legal profession, the curia regis, or
king’s court, had evolved into a distinct legal forum. By
1245, Bracton had become a justice in Devon. He
served on the court that became known as the King’s
Bench from 1247–50 and from 1253–57. During hisBracton, Henry de 37