Carter, James (“Jimmy”) Earl, Jr. 51(the SOVIET UNION, Cuba, Maoist China and the like)
have stagnated and declined.
Most contemporary Western economies are not
purely capitalist, however. They mix capitalism and
socialism (or WELFARE-STATELiberalism), allowing pri-
vate enterprise but having extensive governmental reg-
ulation of business, social programs for the poor,
public education, health care, and retirement systems.
Further Reading
Amin, Samir. Specters of Capitalism: A Critique of Current Intel-
lectual Fashions,Shane Henry Mage, transl. New York:
Monthly Review Press, 1998.
Carlyle, Thomas (1795–1881) Victorian essay-
ist and social critic
Carlyle championed a romanticist vision of literature,
society, and politics against the enlightenment, scien-
tific, and prudential view that gradually came to dom-
inate Victorian England. His early work introduced to
a British audience German idealist and romantic
philosophers and writers such as Goethe and Schiller.
It is this combination of ROMANTICISM and idealism
that informs his critique of society and his interpreta-
tion of literature. Carlyle’s major works range over a
wide number of topics: His first book is a work of
philosophy (Sartor Resartus); he wrote numerous
essays and commentaries, an important work of his-
torical interpretation (The French Revolution), and a
collection of lectures on the place of the heroic in
society (On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in
History).
In Sartor Resartus,Carlyle sets out his understand-
ing of reality as essentially spiritual rather than mate-
rial and his diagnosis of society’s moral misfortunes as
coming from a combination of unbelief and mecha-
nism. These messages are clothed in the literary device
of a fictional German professor, “Teufelsdrockh,”
whose character and pronouncements capture not
only Carlyle’s opinion but also his sense of humor and
satirical tone. Carlyle’s deep misgivings concerning the
calculating, pleasure-based, prudential morality of his
time is best exemplified in his opposition to the doc-
trine of UTILITARIANISM formulated by his one-time
friend John Stuart MILL. He described Mill’s utilitarian
morality as “pig philosophy.”
Carlyle’s contribution to political theory is con-
tained in his work on the French Revolution and in
his theory of the heroic. The former contains his view
of history as an essentially moral and spiritual
progress, expressed in an account of the French Revo-
lution from the execution of Louis XV to the rise of
Napoleon. Here, as in the latter, Carlyle argues that
history is biographical, a story about the decisions
and actions of great individuals. It is not the social
and economic circumstances of a people that drives
history forward, but the spiritual as exemplified by
heroic figures such as Napoleon and Cromwell.
Toward the end of his life he argued for an elitist poli-
tics and against democracy, “which means despair of
finding any Heroes to govern you.” This understand-
ing of great individuals as both moral and historical
ideals prefigures NIETZSCHE’s fuller and more sophisti-
cated philosophy.
Carlyle was born in Ecclefechan in Scotland and
attended Edinburgh University. He had an important
influence on Victorian society, in particular in the
areas of literature and politics. His antidemocratic
views, his biographical view of history, and the rhetori-
cal rather than argumentative character of much of his
writings has diminished his attraction for contempo-
rary scholars. Nevertheless, Carlyle remains a persua-
sive and articulate antienlightenment advocate.Further Reading
Heffer, S. Moral Desperado: A Life of Thomas Carlyle.London:
Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995.Carter, James (“Jimmy”) Earl, Jr. (1924– )
U.S. president, international statesman, businessman,
evangelical Christian
Jimmy Carter is best known for his U.S. presidency
(1977–81) and his extensive public and charitable
service after retiring from the presidency. His political
thought combined moderate DEMOCRATIC PARTYpolicy
with a strong EVANGELICALChristian faith.
Born on a farm in Georgia, Carter was known for
his disciplined, intellectual life. His high performance
as a student led to his entering the prestigious U.S.
Naval Academy in 1942. After serving as an officer in
the navy, Carter returned to his home to run the family
farm and business in Georgia. In 1962, his political
career began in the state senate, followed by election
as governor of Georgia in 1970.
Carter’s sudden rise to national politics followed
the political scandals of Watergate and the resignation