separate branches or offices of state. The idea is that by
distributing political functions among different institu-
tions of society and government, FREEDOMand JUSTICE
are preserved and maintained. No one person or group
can hold all POWER.
This idea of separating and spreading out power to
promote justice appears in the writings of Frenchman
MONTESQUIEU, English writers BOLINGBROKEand BLACK-
STONE, and American founder James MADISON.In
Britain, the division of state into monarch, House of
Lords, and House of Commons is seen as accomplish-
ing checks and balances—each institution of govern-
ment limiting, or checking, the power of the others. In
the U.S. CONSTITUTION, the division of the national or
federal government into executive (president), legisla-
tive (CONGRESS), and judicial (courts) branches
achieves the same purpose of widely distributing
AUTHORITYand protecting the people from arbitrary or
dictatorial rule. Also, the U.S. separation of power
between centralized and decentralized governments
(national vs. STATE) is also seen as a check on absolutist
political power.
The origin of this idea is the political thought of
ARISTOTLEand his idea that the most stable regime or
state is a “mixed” form of government with the rule of
one (king), the rule of a few (ARISTOCRACY), and rule of
the many (DEMOCRACY) is combined in one state, bal-
ancing social interests. In James Madison’s U.S. consti-
tutional thought, this derives also from his Calvinist
CHRISTIANreligion, which holds that all humans are
selfish and sinful and will use political power to con-
trol and oppress others, so state authority must be
divided to ensure social peace, justice, and stability.
Further Readings
Barker, E. Essays on Government,chap. 5. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford
University Press, 1946.
McIlwain, C. H. Constitutionalism and the Changing World.Cam-
bridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1939.
Chinese political thought
The political thought of China from the Shang and
Chou dynasties to the present time. The dominant
philosophies of Chinese philosophy are: (1) Confu-
cianism; (2) legalism; and (3) Taoism. Although 20th-
century China drew from many Western ideas
(LIBERALISM, COMMUNISM, CAPITALISM, DEMOCRACY), the
thought and culture of ancient China continues to
influence modern China.
The dominant political thought (and religion) of
China is Confucianism, from the Chinese thinker
Confucius (551–479 B.C.) and his book, The Analects.
According to this collection of classic Chinese wisdom
and sayings, the ideal government has the rule of
VIRTUEand moral example rather than military might
or hereditary privilege. Confucius’s emphasis on
restoring the religious ceremonies of the Chou dynasty
reflected his belief that goodness consisted of dignified
order, calm, wisdom, and devotion to the common
good. A wise, moral, self-controlled ruler will govern
by the strength of his character and noble example
rather than by worldly power or clever deals. A good
government will earn the respect of others, and sub-
jects will want to be under their AUTHORITY. A truly
Confucian emperor will have people of similar high
character and virtue (civilized gentlemen) in other
positions of public trust. Well-educated, refined per-
sons will display the cardinal virtue of human nature:
“benevolence,” which will inspire the common people
to strive for higher, noble things. Brute force or crass
self-interest are signs of corrupt human nature and
statecraft.
Strongly patriarchal, Confucian thought sees the
state as an extension of the father-ruled family. In both,
women and children and subjects are to be obedient to
the father-ruler. But the man rules gently and gra-
ciously; his authority is not harsh or cruel. The orderly
HIERARCHYof virtue and knowledge (as in PLATO’s Repub-
lic) creates “heaven”—an earthly, not a spiritual, para-
dise. The rule of the wise and good over the ignorant
and evil reflects a divine order and symmetry. Hence,
Chinese politics often elevates the scholar and sage
over the worker and peasant.
Confucian political theory was developed by Men-
cius (372–289 B.C.). He followed Confucian philoso-
phy by seeing four embryonic virtues in the hearts of
humans, but almost in Augustinian CHRISTIANterms,
saw human desire and selfishness (“sin” for Chris-
tians) as predominant in uncultivated humans, which
is the source of all violence, crime, and evil, hence the
need to revive ancient ceremonies and customs to “civ-
ilize” humans and prevent chaos and disorder.
Legalism provided an alternative school of thought
to Confucianism in China. A collection of thinkers and
politicians dating from the third century B.C., legalists
emphasize legal rules and administrative procedures as
the source of order and justice. Similar to the Western
tendency to rely on universal (ROMAN) LAWand bureau-
cracy, the legalists depended less on the character of54 Chinese political thought