Joseph de Maistre advocated an ideal MEDIEVAL, French,
CATHOLICsociety. In Germany, a secular order unified
by the nation characterized conservative thought (in
its extreme form NAZISM). In Britain, Michael OAKE-
SHOTTcontinued the Burkean conservative tradition. In
the United States, William F. BUCKLEY, Daniel Bell,
George F. WILL, and Irving Kristol expressed a tra-
ditional conservatism. Economists F. A. Hayek and
Milton Friedman represent conservative fiscal out-
looks, especially in their criticism of liberal economic
policies.
Most modern societies have a balance between con-
servative and liberal attitudes, causing a moderate
overall policy.
Further Reading
Hunter, James Davison. Culture Wars.New York: Basic Books,
1991.
Constantine (A.D. 274–337) Roman Emperor
and church/state leader
Emperor Constantine consolidated authority over the
Roman Empire by claiming absolute sovereignty over
the Roman principate. After having a vision of the
cross before an important military battle, Constantine
adopted the letters symbolizing Christ on his standard
and granted toleration to previously persecuted Chris-
tians. He soon showed imperial favor on the church,
and Christianity became the official religion of the
Roman Empire in A.D. 330. His linking of Christianity
and government led to the emperor presiding over
church councils (such as Nicaea in A.D. 315) and lead-
ing to the Eastern Orthodox idea that emperors (and
czars) are supreme authorities over both CHURCH AND
STATE. The unifying of secular and sacred power in the
Orthodox churches contributed to their separation
from the Western Catholic Church, which acknowl-
edge separation of church and state.
Constantine built his imperial center in the Eastern
city of Byzantium, subsequently called Constantinople
(now Istanbul, Turkey). He reformed many laws along
CHRISTIANethical lines, including humanizing criminal
law, improving the conditions of slaves, establishing
charitable institutions for poor children, and proclaim-
ing the Lord’s Day (Sunday) a holiday. His benefits to
clergy and churches tied Christianity to the state, caus-
ing, for some, the worldliness and corruption of
church leaders.
Further Reading
Jones, A. H. M. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe.Lon-
don: English Universities Press, 1948.constitution/constitutional
Usually, a written document that describes the struc-
ture of a government and the fundamental RIGHTSof cit-
izens. For example, the U.S. Constitution describes the
structure of the American federal government; it
defines the functions and limits of each branch of state
(executive, legislative, judicial) and the relation of the
centralized national government with the decentral-
ized state governments. It also contains a Bill of Rights
in the first ten amendments (such as individual FREE-
DOMof speech, press, religion, and assembly). Most
written constitutions also include a preamble, or state-
ment of the purpose of government, and amendment
procedures, or how the constitution can be legally
changed.
Because the Constitution of a government estab-
lishes the institutions that make laws, it is considered
prior to and the foundation of those laws, so if a legis-
lature passes a law contrary to the Constitution (such
as restricting freedom of speech or religion), that law
is considered invalid or “unconstitutional.” Usually a
court (such as the U.S. Supreme Court) decides if a
statute violates a constitutional provision. The histori-
cal body of these court decisions are called constitu-
tional law, and, like the English common law, it relies
on past cases or “precedent” in deciding new cases.
This makes constitutional law, at least in theory, CON-
SERVATIVEand past bound, as Edmund BURKEwould say.
When the court relies on social, economic, or contem-
porary political movements rather than strictly past
legal decisions, it is known as judicial activism. Con-
stitutional law is an evolving doctrine, providing sta-
ble, gradual change.
Another less common definition of constitutionis
the way a government and society are constituted, or
made up. The British constitution is of this kind; it is
not a written document but a tradition of institutions
and practices (such as the mixed government of
monarchy, Lords, and Commons; the English com-
mon-law tradition; land tenure, etc.). This is a more
cultural definition of CONSTITUTION. Most MODERNdem-
ocratic republics have a written constitution, but not
all countries are faithful to their nation’s constitutional
principles.72 Constantine