. mudrā, mantra, mandala 83
In the later Buddhist tantras the “mandala” takes on an additional
meaning, as “spiritual field” or “sphere of activity” in the sense of the
space in which a given adept operates or functions. This meaning,
which is of course an extension of the common ritual space with its
physical mandala, reflects the appropriation and incorporation of the
surrounding reality on the part of the tantric yogin (Davidson 2002a,
294–335).
Unified Three Secrets and the Rise of Esoteric Buddhism
The use of mantras, mudrās, and mandalic diagrams and altars cer-
tainly precedes the rise of esoteric Buddhism and the tantras, and are
found in various settings in the Mahāyāna. But it is only in early eso-
teric Buddhism where the three begin to coalesce into an integrated
ritual system designed not only to evoke buddhas and bodhisattvas,
but to produce them and harness their power.
A key element in this synthesis can be found in Mahāyāna discus-
sions of the “three modes of action” (sanye ) or the ways in which
buddhas (and bodhisattvas), while residing in samādhi, nonetheless
employ wonderous supernormal powers of body, speech, and mind
to rescue sentient beings.^27 In a fascinating passage in his Miaofa
lianhuan jing wenju using the language of cause ( yin
) and result (guo ) Zhiyi ( 538–597) links the three modes
of action with the three secrets. “Further, cause refers to the three
modes of action (sanye), result refers to the three secrets (sanmi). As
cause compassion directs the three modes of action for the benefit
others. As result it is called the inconceivable transformation of the
three wheels.” For Zhiyi the two—cause and result—are joined by a
further triad: the three modes of action are equated with practice of
calmness, insight, and compassion.^28 Thus the three modes, the three
secrets, and the triad of calmness, insight, and compassion are simply
different manifestations of the same thing. Successful practice of the
latter triad entails the previous two triads.
We do not know exactly how, when, or why speculation over the
buddha’s wonderous salvific powers was transformed into a way of rit-
ually producing such powers. Although it does not use the term “three
(^27) The topic is taken up in a variety of texts including the Dazhidu lun
T. 1509. See McBride, 2006.
(^28) T. 1718.34:118c5–9.