94 henrik h. sørensen
Probably due to this fact, there was an iconographic conflation between
images of Baisajyaguru and Tejaprabha (see below) during the late Tang. ̣
Baisajyaguru has enjoyed considerable popularity throughout the his-̣
tory of Central and East Asian Buddhism right up to the present day.^7
Tejaprabha, Lord of the Constellations, occurs primarily in connec-
tion with the worship of the heavenly bodies over which he is consid-
ered the primary astral divinity in late Tang Buddhism and onward.
He is usually depicted as a normal nirmānakāya buddha holding a
golden Dharma wheel (cakra). His cult came about during the second
half of the Tang and quickly became important, especially in connec-
tion with Esoteric Buddhist rituals performed on behalf of the court to
protect against perceived ominous astral movements.^8 The importance
of the Tejaprabha cult is reflected in banner paintings from Dun-
huang and stone carvings from various locations in Sichuan. Icono-
graphically, Tejaprabha reflects certain traits of the Vairocana of the
Dharmadhātu Mandala and his representation may have its origins in
Zhenyan iconic forms.
Maitreya, the Future Buddha, did not become a major divinity
in the Esoteric Buddhist pantheon until relatively late. During the
Ming the personified Chan form of Maitreya in the form of Budai
or Daduze , probably due to his enormous popular appeal,
was elevated to the Esoteric Buddhist pantheon. Images reflecting this
development show Budai with a five-buddha crown. However, Maitreya
first appears as a fully integrated Esoteric Buddhist divinity with his own
cult and elaborate ritual program in the Sino-Tibetan and Sino-Mongol
forms of Tantric Buddhism of the Ming and Qing periods.^9
Bodhisattvas
Avalokiteśvara stands out among the numerous bodhisattvas inhabiting
the Esoteric Buddhist pantheon in East Asia as the single most important
divinity, eclipsing even Vairocana in popularity and influence. His many
forms have spawned cults in China, Korea, and Japan.^10
(^7) See Birnbaum 1979.
(^8) Cf. Sørensen, “Astrology and the Worship of the Planets in Esoteric Buddhism
during the Tang,” in this volume. 9
For these forms of Esoteric Buddhism see Shen, “Tantric Buddhism in Ming
China,” in this volume. 10
For a very useful survey of the scriptural sources on Avalokiteśvara in the context
of Chinese Buddhism, see Yü 2001, 231–291. Note that Yü is not primarily concerned
with the Esoteric Buddhist aspects of the Avalokiteśvara cult(s).