132 henrik h. sørensen
emperors, and the cults of many Tantric Buddhist cults were intro-
duced at this time.^139
Due to the great importance accorded Buddhist clerics in the Tibetan
Buddhist tradition, the reformation of Esoteric Buddhism under the
Ming and later under the Qing meant that portraits and votive images
of important lamas, such as the Karmapas of the Kagyud-pa, and
Tsongkapa and the lineage of Dalai Lamas of the Gelugs-pa, came to
be venerated as divinities in Chinese Buddhist temples, primarily in
the western and northern parts of the empire.^140
With the rise of the Manchus and with them the Mongols, a new
wave of Sino-Tibetan art became the dominant mode of expressing
Esoteric Buddhist imagery under the Qing.^141 This last phase of Tantric
Buddhism in China reflects the characteristics of the Mongolian Bud-
dhist pantheon. This is most clearly seen in the works of Zanabazar
(1635–1723) and the successors in his school.^142 Due to the influence of
Mongolian Buddhism, a few new divinities were added to the Buddhist
pantheon, including a number of nature spirits as well as the impor-
tant demon-protector Begtse.^143
(^139) The spread of the Tibetan Tantric pantheon in China during the early Ming
is reflected in the surviving Buddhist art from this period. Cf. Watt and Leidy 2005,
61–101. See also Karmay 1975, 72–97; Berger 2001. See also Shen, “Tantric Buddhism
in Ming China,” in this volume.
(^140) For a discussion of one such temple, see Hammond 2001.
(^141) Three iconographical manuals of the Qing Lamaist pantheon can be found in Zi
Yi, 2001. Another important source is the Foshuo caoxiang liangdu jing jie
(An Explanation of the Scripture on Measurements for the Making of Bud-
dhist Images), T. 1419. For additional information on the Qing Lamaist pantheon, see
Lipton 1996. Contrary to the title of this book, Treasures of Tibetan Art, the majority
of the Buddhist images and paintings in this collection are in fact of Manchu prov-
enance and were produced in Qing China or in Inner Mongolia.
(^142) Cf. Berger and Bartholomew 1995, 261–304. See also Fontein, et al. 1999,
70–89.
(^143) Cf. Berger and Bartholomew 1995, 207–60.