. stūpas and relics in esoteric buddhism 149
Esoteric Buddhism continues Buddhist traditions regarding stūpas
and relics but adds two distinctive dimensions to their use. These
dimensions are readily apparent when we examine specifically eso-
teric sūtras and ritual manuals that address the worship of stūpas and
relics.^15 First, the worship of stūpas and relics is enhanced through
esoteric ritual technology; and second, stūpas and relics are situated
in a particular ideological and semiotic matrix, especially within the
“yoga” tradition stemming from the Sarvatathāgatatattva saṃgraha
(hereafter STTS).^16
There are several important scriptures and manuals in the esoteric
Buddhist tradition in China that detail various aspects of the worship
of stūpas and pagodas. Among them is the Mahāmaṇivipula vimāna
(Mouli mantuoluo zhou jing ).^17 The central ritual
of this significantly early esoteric Buddhist scripture revolves around
the worship of a mandala altar on which a stūpa is placed. The text
explains how through empowerment the ritual site becomes sanctified
and identical with a location where the Buddha’s bodily relics are kept,
thus creating “relics” through the application of esoteric technology.^18
This was followed by the Caityapradaksiṇ ̣agātha^19 (Yourao fo ta
gongde jing ), translated by Śiks ānanda between ̣
(^15) For an overview of symbolism connected with stūpas see Snodgrass 1992.
(^16) Vajrabodhi translated the first synopsis of this scripture (T. 866
), but there was no full translation of the text until Dānapāla (Shihu )
translated it in 1012–1015, during the Northern Song (T. 882). It is interesting to note
that most surviving canonical sūtras dealing with stūpas, and by extension pagodas, in
China and East Asia belong to the esoteric Buddhist tradition.
(^17) T. 1007.19:657c–68b. The full Sanskrit title is Mahāmaṇivipulavimānaviśvasupratiṣ-
ṭhita-guhyaparamarahasyakalparājadhāraṇī(sūtra). The title first appears in the Tang
catalogue Kaiyuan shijiao lu (T. 2154.55:539a) with no attribution. It appears later in
the Zhenyuan xinding shijiao mu lu (T. 2157.55:935a), with a note that the translator’s
name has been lost but also that the title was recorded in the Liang dynasty. There
are other versions by Amoghavajra (T. 1005a) and by Bodhiruci (T. 1006). For a gen-
eral discussion of the Mahāmaṇivipulavimanā with some analysis of the differences
between the three main versions of the scripture, see FDC, vol. 1, 907a–8a.
(^18) One early work on the making of stūpas is the Zao ta gongde jing
(Scripture on the Virtues of Making Stūpas, T. 699.16), which was translated by
Divākara in 680. Although not an esoteric Buddhist scripture per se, the religious
contexts in which it was employed and used clearly indicate an esoteric Buddhist
environment. This is underscored by the fact that Divākara was an important transla-
tor of esoteric Buddhist scriptures.
(^19) The Scripture on Merit Gained through Circumambulating Buddhist Stūpas, T. 700.