168 henrik h. sørensen
meaning of “spell” or “mantra.”^35 We later find the same usage in the
Pretamukhāgnijvālayaśarakāra dhāraṇī (T. 1313), i.e., in Amogha-
vajra’s Hungry Ghost Scripture^36 and in his Shiyi mian Guanzizai pusa
xin niansong yigui jing (Scripture
on the Ritual Proceedings for Invoking Ekādaśamukha-avalokiteśvara
Bodhisattva Heart [Spell]; T. 1069), where it appears as part of a longer
phrase, “the secret words of samaya of Avalokiteśvara’s original family
(Guanzizai benbu sanmoye miyan ).”^37
There can be no doubt that during the Tang the term “mijiao” was to
a large extent associated with Esoteric Buddhism and practices involv-
ing spells (and mantras). The Zhengyuan xinding shijiao mulu
(Catalogue of the Newly Established Buddhist Teaching
of the Zhengyuan Reign-period; T. 2157) contains a reference to the
type of Buddhism taught by Amoghavajra as “the esoteric teaching
of Yoga (yuqie mijiao ).”^38 While this reference obviously
links Yoga with Esoteric Buddhism, it also shows that in this catalogue
“mijiao” was understood as a distinct form of Buddhism.^39
It is clear from a number of sources, including the Japanese pilgrim-
monk Annen’s (841–?) Sho ajari shingon mikkyōbu
(Esoteric Buddhist Section of All the Ācāryas’ Mantras), that
Esoteric Buddhism had its own collection of texts.^40 Although Annen
is a relatively late Japanese source, the title of his work signals not only
the connection between the ācārya, i.e., the Esoteric Buddhist master
par excellance, and the use of mantras, it also indicates the concept
of a mikkyōbu, and therefore the existence of a special collection of
Esoteric Buddhist texts. This becomes more obvious when reviewing
the titles in the above catalogue (we shall return below to the question
of the existence of a special Esoteric Buddhist text collection during
the Tang).
The distinction between esoteric and exoteric usages of mi and mijiao
becomes evident in the following source, the Mingfofa genben bei
(Stele Illuminating the Roots of the Buddha’s Teaching;
(^35) T. 998.19:578a, etc.
(^36) T. 1313.21:465b.
(^37) T. 1069.20:142b. For the same usage see also Amoghavajra’s T. 856.18:175a.
(^38) T. 2157.55:882b.
(^39) For a discussion of these terms during the Tang see Orzech 2006b.
(^40) T. 2176.55:1125c–32c.