. the apocrypha and esoteric buddhism in china 187
Third, some hybrid works (see below) may occasionally be found to
contain authentic dhāraṇīs, or parts thereof, that have been incorpo-
rated into them, i.e., material lifted from authentic Indian scriptures
and inserted into the apocryphal composition.
On Hybrid Works and Transformed Scriptures
Many of the Esoteric Buddhist scriptures in China that feature anoma-
lies or traces of cultural tampering are not really apocryphal in the
sense of being proper Chinese compositions or constructions, but nei-
ther are they purely Indian scriptures. They represent a sort of textual
and cultural compromise: they may consist of translations of an origi-
nal Indian text or contain passages or parts of Indian scriptures mixed
together with material that is purely Chinese. Other works may be
actual Chinese compositions that also include original Sanskrit mate-
rial. It also appears that during the process of translation many Eso-
teric Buddhist scriptures underwent considerable editorial changes.
These changes were undoubtedly deemed necessary by the translators
in order to make a given teaching or ritual practice easier to adapt to
the Chinese cultural milieu. However, the more a given text is adapted
or modified, the greater the changes to its original intent and structure.
Therefore, we see in these hybrid Esoteric Buddhist works a variety
of changes—from simple adaptations such as changes of names and
terms, to serious augmentation, major additions, rewriting, restructur-
ing, and even excision of original material.
Illustrative examples of such textual transmutation and per-
mutation can be seen in the earliest versions of the scriptures on
Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī, which was transmitted in China during the
late fourth to mid-fifth centuries,^24 as well as in the textual history of
the cycle of scriptures devoted to the demon-general Ātavaka.̣^25 The
early versions of the Mahā māyūrī vidyārājñī scriptures are not only
truncated and strangely put together, they also feature considerable
(^24) As represented by T. 986, T. 987, and T. 988. For a study of these early Mahāmāyūrī
texts, see Sørensen 2006b.
(^25) For a thorough and informative discussion of this divinity, including the related
cult and scriptures, cf. Duquenne 1983b. See also Strickmann 2002, 143–51. Unfor-
tunately Strickmann avoids discussing the history of the Ātavaka scriptures and their ̣
rituals in the setting of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism; thus his study falls short of pro-
viding a solid treatment of this otherwise important and highly interesting material.
For more on Ātavaka see Sørensen, “Central Divinities in the Esoteric Buddhist Pan-̣
theon in China” in this volume.