14. ESOTERIC BUDDHISM AND MAGIC IN CHINA
Henrik H. SørensenBuddhism and the Production of Ritual Magic
Displays of magic have played (and still play) important roles in Eso-
teric Buddhism in China and East Asia. This essay explores the role of
magic in Esoteric Buddhism as well as relationships and distinctions
between miracles caused by the practice of magic (huanshu )
and spiritual attainment as such, provided such distinctions may be
observed to prevail.
Although magic was present in the Buddhist religion from early
on, the Buddha, at least in the early tradition, is often depicted as
opposing its use and the use of spells.^1 Evidently there was a concern
over the egotistically motivated lure of power associated with the use
of magic. One example where we see the Buddha rejecting the use
of magic practices including various forms of prognostication, the
use of magic poison, and exorcism is in the Brahmajāla sutta (Rhys
Davids 1899, 1–55). Here, although the injunctions of this scripture
are part of a polemic against Hindus, the Buddha states clearly that
such practices are unworthy and unsavory for a Buddhist monk to
perform (Rhys Davids 1899, 16–20). Early Buddhist literature shows
an undisguised ambivalence towards magic in such descriptions as
the Buddha’s performance of the miracles at Śrāvastī, in the positive
way the achievement of supernatural powers by ascetic monks are
referred to, as well as in the popular and widespread use of spells in
Buddhism that occur in the main sources before the beginning of the
Common Era.^2
With regard to Esoteric Buddhism in China, a series of issues relat-
ing to magical lore needs to be considered. The first of these involves
(^1) See, for example, the Ekottarāgama sūtra (T. 2.2. 638c). See also the Mahā-
prajñāpāramitā sūtra, which forbids the conjuring up of demons, the use of
magic in pronogstication, etc. (cf. T. 220.7:266a). The same warning is repeated
in the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā sūtra (T. 221.8:88b) and also in the
Aṣt 2 ̣asāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā sūtra (T. 224.8:455c).
For a discussion of this, see Sørensen, “On Esoteric Buddhism in China: A Work-
ing Definition,” in this volume.