. esoteric buddhism and magic in china 201
the driving force behind the interest in the mastery of siddhis in Eso-
teric Buddhism. This paradox never seems to have occurred to the
Buddhist practitioners of magic themselves. Quite to the contrary,
Esoteric Buddhist literature often depicts Śākyamuni, and especially
Vairocana Buddha (the chief divinity par excellence of Esoteric Bud-
dhism), as cosmic magicians who are not only in control of the forces
of the universe, but also as entirely beyond the natural laws governing
them.^11 This spiritual “upgrading” and focus on magical practices is
a leading feature of Esoteric Buddhism and reflects both the ongoing
process of changing religious values in Buddhism per se and at the
same time a divergence from standard interpretations of the soterio-
logical process in mainstream Mahāyāna.
On the Use of Magic in Esoteric Buddhism in China
While virtually all forms of magic encountered in Esoteric Buddhist
texts deal with or touch upon the attainment of supernatural powers
through ritual processes, they are nevertheless carried out for a variety
of reasons and purposes. These include issues related to demonology,
sexuality, treasure hunting, divine response, and supernatural powers.
Demonology is a sub-branch of Esoteric Buddhist magic, one that
involves a thorough knowledge of spirits, demons, and ghosts and
how to deal with them. In order to successfully counteract demonic
infestation whether in the form of possession, as a direct manifesta-
tion, or in terms of contagion, the adept needs to know the offending
spirit’s name. Because of this, entire Buddhist scriptures were devel-
oped, many originating in India, which contained literally hundreds
of spirits’ names. In addition to possessing the register of names, the
Esoteric Buddhist adept should hold the corresponding antidote to a
given demon, usually in the form of a spell. Such a spell could be spe-
cific (i.e., especially geared to control a particular spirit), in which case
it would normally include the name of the offending spirit; or it could
be general, in the sense of having a multi-purpose effect to counteract
various kinds of evil. Examples of such registers of demonic names
can be found in Saṃghabhara’s (460–?) translation of the
Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī (cf. T. 984). Other scriptures, such as the early
(^11) This aspect of Vairocana is vividly described in the Mahāvairocana sūtra. See
Giebel 2005 and the entry on Vairocana in Sørensen, “Central Divinities in the Eso-
teric Buddhist Pantheon in China,” in this volume.