. esoteric buddhism and magic in china 205
Buddhism—whether we talk about its earlier manifestations or the
later tantric phase—it is principally the spell that serves as the “trig-
ger” to set the magical process in motion. For this reason, knowledge
of the relevant spell-literature was of paramount importance to the
practitioner of magic. This concern with the technicalities of magic
is reflected in scriptures such as the long version of the Amoghapāśa-
kalparāja (T. 1092), the Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī sūtra (see especially
Amoghavajra’s version in three chapters, T. 982), and the Susiddhikara
sūtra, all of which contain lists of spirits that may be commanded by
the use of a given spell and detailed listings of magical pharmacopeia
to be empowered. Moreover, it would appear that the development of
spell manuals as a distinct type of Esoteric Buddhist literature specifi-
cally came about to address this concern.
Conclusion
One of the primary features in the use of magic within the context of
Esoteric Buddhism in China—and in the rest of East Asia as well—is
that its use, at least on the higher level of practice, is equated with
spiritual attainment. Ritual success through a rite based on belief
in magic and wonderworking is considered on a par with doctrinal
mastery, skill in meditation, and moral purity. Actually, it is not only
identical with them, it is even considered superior in the hermeneu-
tic parlance of Esoteric Buddhism. In practical terms this means that
Esoteric Buddhism is essentially supplanting spiritual practice with
magical power, or rather, the fine line dividing the deportment of the
heroic bodhisattva and the dubious morality of the sorcerer is no lon-
ger there. This means that successful application of ritual magic is to
a large extent being identified with enlightenment. Of course, practi-
tioners of Esoteric Buddhism came from many different backgrounds
and with different spiritual motives. Nevertheless, due to the potential
transgressive nature of magic practices, it would appear that the cus-
tomary bodhisattva ethics were often set aside in order to engage in
the arcana of siddhi.
Many of the rituals involving magic feature practices that, at least
on the surface, appear to conflict with standard Mahāyāna ethics. This
ing definition of magic in the context of esoteric Buddhism. For further discussion,
see Sørensen, “On Esoteric Buddhism in China: A Working Definition,” and Copp,
“Dhāraṇī Scriptures,” in this volume.