218 richard d. mcbride ii
of the images from the eighth and ninth centuries (Wong 2007c); from
the eighth century onward, after the translation of the Mahāvairocana
sūtra, the tantric version became widespread as well (Tajima 1936).
The two forms are not always easily distinguishable. Both forms typi-
cally present Vairocana performing the “wisdom-fist mudrā” (zhiquan
yin ), although several other mudrās are also depicted in extant
iconography. Because Mahāvairocana is found in the center of both
the Vajradhātu and Garbhadhātu mandalas, iconic representations of
these mandalas in two- or three-dimensional forms are indicative of
esoteric Buddhism. Also, the esoteric Mahāvairocana is depicted in
cases where the setting of surrounding buddhas, bodhisattvas, and
other deities corresponds to other ritual descriptions and mandalas
found in esoteric sūtras.
Amitābha (Amituo ), or Amitāyus (Wuliangshou ),
the Buddha of Sukhāvatī, the buddhakṣetra in the western region, is
the subject of several recensions of the Anatamukhasādhāka-dhāraṇī
(a.k.a. Anantamukhanirhāra-dhāraṇī, T. nos. 1009–1018). The earliest
translations were executed during the first quarter of the third century,
and new translations appeared regularly over the next several centu-
ries, culminating with the ultimately authoritative version done by
Amoghavajra in the eighth century. These dhāraṇī sūtras contain pro-
cedures for purifying bodhisattva practices and a dhāraṇī producing
what is popularly called “the samādhi of buddha recollection” (nianfo
sanmei ). Although there is no mandala or empowerment
ritual, some scholars feel certain of its esoteric content because it con-
tains dhāraṇīs (Inagaki 1999). Other translated works by Amoghavajra,
such as Ritual Procedures for Contemplation of and Offerings to the
Tathāgata Amitāyus (Wuliangshou rulai guanxing gongyang yigui
, T. 930), more explicitly ritualize the process
of visualizing the Pure Land of Amitāyus by describing the procedures
for establishing a ritual area.
Bhaisajyaguru (Yaoshi ̣ ), or Bhais ̣ajyarāja (Yaowang ), the
Buddha of Healing and Medicine, presides over a Pure Land in the
east, the Lapis Lazuli Realm (liuli shijie ), in early Indian
Mahāyāna. He replaced Aksobhya (Achu ̣ , Achupo ) as
the buddha of the eastern direction (Nattier 2000). Merely hearing
his name was said to engender a visit from the eight great bodhisatt-
vas and rebirth in the Western Paradise. Although the major sūtras
on Bhaisajyaguru were not translated into Chinese until the seventh ̣
century, 616 and 650 respectively (Birnbaum 1979), an early version