. astrology and the worship of the planets 233
symbols to indicate the constellation or heavenly body against which
it is thought to render protection. The manner in which the Daoist
talismanic tradition found its way into Chinese Buddhism therefore
reflects an ancient human need for supernatural protection against
negative influences believed to emanate from the asterisms. Seen from
this perspective, the talismans are astral charts or astral “passports”
with which the believer may navigate a perilous world replete with
cosmic dangers.^10
The manner in which the medieval Chinese envisaged the sky and
the asterisms, including planets and constellations, is partly revealed
in the significant astral maps recovered from Dunhuang.^11 Although
not linked to any particular religious context, these maps or astral
charts nevertheless represent the methods whereby the medieval Chi-
nese navigated the heavens; as such, they also inform us about the
way Buddhists conceptualized it. Since astrology and worship of the
planets practiced in order to avoid various calamities and troubles
essentially transcends religious distinctions, however, it is difficult to
clearly distinguish Buddhist and Daoist beliefs and practices in this
regard. In fact, when looking at the iconography, including various
graphic representations of talismanic charts, it is abundantly clear that
most pictorial representations reflect a rather balanced integration of
Buddhist and Daoist imagery and ideas. Indeed, Chinese Buddhists,
in particular those involved in Esoteric Buddhism, where astrologi-
cal concerns occupied a prominent place, borrowed freely and seem-
ingly without abandon from the Daoist tradition in regard to worship
of the planets.^12 While this trend is evident in many translations of
Indian Esoteric Buddhist works, it is most clearly seen in the apocry-
phal scriptures, in which original Indian Buddhist beliefs and practices
have been seamlessly merged with indigenous traditions.^13
(^10) The use of talismans in Esoteric Buddhism in China is discussed in by Robson,
“Talismans in Chinese Esoteric Buddhism,” in this volume. 11
Cf. Xi 1966. See also Little, Eichman, et al. 2000, 142–43.
(^12) Cf. Xiao 1991, 1994. Xiao’s works, although tendentious in the sense that the
author wishes to prove the indebtedness of Esoteric Buddhism to Daoism, are never-
theless highly useful in their detailed discussion of Daoist elements in the Esoteric
Buddhist scriptures in Chinese. His research is also valuable for revealing the large
amount of apocrypha or hybrid works contained in this material. 13
See Morita 1946. Although still the most comprehensive work to deal with the
worship of the planets and astrology in Esoteric Buddhism, the fact that the author
does not clearly distinguish between Chinese and Japanese practices and traditions but
presents them together in a blur of undifferentiated details, necessitates that this work
be approached with some caution.