. esoteric buddhist art up to the tang 259
their respective mounts, the bull and the peacock.^7 The entrance of
cave no. 8 features Maheśvara on the east wall, and on the west wall, that
of Kārttikeya. Smaller images of these two protecting devas, but other-
wise displaying identical iconographical features, can be found above
the entrance to the northern antechamber in cave no. 10 (figure 2).
During the sixth century we also find images of Vināyaka (Gaṇeśa)
in the role of guardian or protector among the wall paintings of the
Mogao Caves in Dunhuang. These images also appear on Buddhist
steles and as part of a secondary group of protecting spirits on thrones
for Buddha images.^8
The earliest pre-Tang images that may be considered clear-cut exam-
ples of Esoteric Buddhist iconography (and practice?) are the reliefs of
vidyārājas found at the entrance of the Bingyang Cave and
at other locations within the Longmen grotto complex (Gong 1980a,
pl. 1 [1–2]). These images reflect the beginnings of the iconographical
tradition of depicting the vidyārājas as many-armed, demon-looking
protectors that normally characterize mature Esoteric Buddhist ico-
nography associated with the Zhenyan tradition of the mid- to late
Tang. The dating of these high reliefs is uncertain, but they would
appear to date from before 530 C.E., more or less contemporaneous
with the date of the cave itself.
It is important to note, however, that none of these images appear
as primary divinities in their respective sculptural or pictorial contexts.
They were secondary, often generic figures and would seem to have
remained so until they became the foci of attention with their own
cults in the later development of Esoteric Buddhism in China.
(^7) For further information on Kārttikeya, see Mukherjee 1987.
(^8) See Dunhuang wenwu yanjiu 1987, pls. 114, 119. Note that both Maheśvara and
Kārttikeya occur in the same mural as well. See also Henan sheng gudai jianzhu baohu
yanjiu 1987, 1–6, pl. 1 [5]. The images at this site date from the Sui dynasty. The rise
of Vināyaka as an important Buddhist protector with whom magical arts and spells
were associated is discussed by Smet 1989.