296 henrik h. sØrensen
Tiantai
Esoteric Buddhist elements in the practices and doctrines of the
Tiantai school can be traced back to the time of its de-facto founder,
Zhiyi (538–597). This influence can be found in works such as the
Qing Guanyin chan fa (Method for Repentance Through
Invoking Avalokiteśvara)^10 and the Fangdeng sanmei xingfa
(Method for Practicing the Vaipulya Samādhi).^11 It would
appear that the primary scriptures that influenced Zhiyi (and his suc-
cessors) in regard to ritual practices were the Mahāvaipulya-dhāraṇī
sūtra^12 and the Qing Guanshiyin pusa xiaofudu hai tuoluoni zhou jing
(Spell Scripture of the Dhāran ̣ī
for Invoking Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva in Order to Get Rid of Poi-
sonous Vexations).^13 The nature of the Esoteric Buddhist elements in
Tiantai Buddhism is by and large limited to the use of spells and the
construction of special altars.^14 However, there is no reference to the
use of mudrās or mandalas in the pre-Tang and Tang material. This is
also borne out in the account of Tiantai Buddhism in late Tang China
by the Japanese pilgrim-monk Ennin (794–864).^15
Saichō (767–822), the Japanese founder of the Tendai school,
has traditionally been credited with having brought Esoteric Buddhist
teachings back with him from Tang China. However, the actual nature
of this purported transmission is both unclear and suspect. In any case,
it appears that the type of Esoteric Buddhism Saichō was exposed to in
China was primarily of the Zhenyan variety, possibly linked with the
Mahāvairocana sūtra, and not some form of esoteric Tiantai.^16 That
being said, Esoteric Buddhist practices do not appear to have been of
real importance in Chinese Tiantai Buddhism until after the Tang.
The Faxiang School and Esoteric Buddhism
Although the Faxiang school , which originated with Xuanzang
(600–664) and was continued by his disciple Guiji (632–
(^10) As contained in the Guoqing pailu (Hundred Records of Guoqing
Temple), 11 T. 1934.46:795b–96a.
T. 1940.
(^12) T. 1339.21:641a–61a. See also Donner and Stevenson 1993, 253–56.
(^13) T. 1043.20:34b–38a.
(^14) See the excellent study by Stevenson 1986.
(^15) See Reischauer 1955a, and the companion volume, Reischauer 1955b.
(^16) Cf. Chen 1998, 2009.