314 richard d. mcbride ii
substrate instead of a shamanic substrate in Chinese religion, drama,
and so forth (2002, 278–281). However, in Buddhist literature non-
tantric Buddhist monks had long been encouraged to become spe-
cialists in a variety of spells and efficacious procedures (Lamotte
1944–1981, 4: 1809–1838; McBride 2005; Davidson 2009).
Although the connections between Daoism, popular religion, and
esoteric/tantric Buddhism are compelling, there is little firm evidence
that shamans and practitioners read or knew of these translated Bud-
dhist materials. In the end, more important than the contributions of
the esoteric tradition to the doctrinal issues of subitism, the theory
of buddha bodies, and dualism, or even rituals for the protection of
the state, the most far-reaching influence of translated esoteric scrip-
tures in medieval China was the introduction of ritual practices that
invoke various forms of Avalokiteśvara using dhāraṇī and mantra.
These practices transformed and recombined, and although much of
their esoteric character was lost, the mantra and dhāraṇī rituals greatly
influenced the cult of Guanyin in China in the late imperial period.