. dunhuang and central asia 367
Nearby Yulin caves 3 and 4, from the Xixia and Yuan periods respec-
tively, also exhibit programs consecrated to esoteric and tantric deities.
Another cave, Mogao 148, contains a unique mixture of exoteric picto-
rial motifs and esoteric sculpture.^5 Thus, rather than dominating the
artistic and ritual programs of cave-shrines or being entirely excluded,
the vast majority of caves integrate esoteric materials into their overall
configurations, analogous in many ways to the use of those materials
in everyday life.^6
Esoteric images appear in caves paintings from the early Tang (618–
704) onward, primarily as depictions of protective deities found in the
antechambers and corridors of the caves, as well as along the eastern
wall.^7 Among the most common are various forms of Avalokiteśvara,
such as the Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara (Ekādaśamukha; Shiyi mian
Guanshiyin ), Amoghapāśa (Bukong juansuo
), Cintāmaṇicakra Avalokiteśvara (Guanshiyin Ruyi lun
), and the Thousand-armed and Thousand-eyed
Avalokiteśvara (Sahasrabhujāryāvalokiteśvara; Qianshou qianyan
Guanshiyin pusa ). Vajrasattva (Jin’gangsatuo
), Mahāmāyūrī (Kongque mingwang ), and the
Thousand-armed Mañjuśrī (Manshushili qian bi qian bo
) also appear in these locations.^8
1997; Zhongguo bihua quanji 1989–1991; and Zhongguo meishu quanji 1985. Images
of the caves’ interiors can also be found online through ARTstor database. 5
For a study of this cave, see Sonya S. Lee 2010. She notes that with its mixture
of esoteric and exoteric materials, Mogao cave 148 exhibits “relative comprehensive-
ness in encapsulating what Buddhism meant in Dunhuang at the time” (Sonya S. Lee
2010, 199). 6
The interior of the Mogao caves mirroring ritual spaces outside the caves is dis-
cussed in Schmid 2006. 7
For an extensive list of deities, paintings, dates, and locations within the caves, see
Sørensen 1991–1992b, 335–39. Peng 1996 and 1999 discuss the use of the Thousand-
armed and Thousand-eyed Avalokiteśvara and Amoghapāśa images respectively in
such contexts, while his volume on esoteric art at Dunhuang (Peng, ed. 2003) provides
extensive images of esoteric materials. For seminal research on Dunhuang esoteric art,
see Su 1989a and 1989b. 8
Seldom found elsewhere in China, images depicting the Thousand-armed
Mañjuśrī appear in at least 16 caves at Mogao. The deity is associated with the Scrip-
ture of the Mahāyana Yoga of the Adamantine Ocean, Mañjusrī with a Thousand Arms
and Thousand Bowls, the King of the Great Teachings (Dacheng yujia jin’gang xinghai
Manshushili qianbei qianbo dajiaowang jing
, also known as the Scripture of a Thousand Bowls Qianbo jing ; T.
1177), attributed to Amoghavajra. Michelle Wang 2008 examines the use of the image
in Mogao cave 14. For a study of the Thousand-armed Mañjuśrī, see Gimello 1997.