374 neil schmid
found in Mogao caves 14, 432, and 462.^30 These mandalas appear to be
associated with the Scripture of the Vajra Pinnacle (Jin’gang jun jing
)^31 and, although derived from South Asian tantric traditions,
they were used in confession rites accessible to all social categories,
including uninitiated laypeople.^32 Resources from Dunhuang thus pro-
vide details of materials employed in a wide range of ritual settings,
the particulars of which may have been edited out through sectarian
agendas elsewhere in East Asia.
The discussion above points to some directions in which Dunhuang
materials offer possibilities across different media to open new ways
of conceptualizing esoteric Buddhism. Although textual work has been
done by pioneering scholars such as Ōmura Seigai, Osabe Kazuo, and
Hirai Yūkei in Japan and Lin Shitian, Shen Guomei, and Li Xiaorong
in China, the vast majority of manuscripts still remain unexamined in
detail. Mining these textual resources in conjunction with the wealth
of related materials at Dunhuang would establish a solid ground-
work for comparative study of esoteric doctrines and practices across
East Asia.
(^30) For overviews of the Five Jina Buddhas, see Sørensen 1991–1992, 291–94, and
Wang 2008, 160–73. 31
P.2197 “Vajra Lord Sūtra Vajra Usṇīṣa all Tathāgatas Body, the Secret Vajradhātu ̣
Great Samaya Cultivation Forty-two Types of Altar Methods Sūtra to be Used for
Making the Ritual of the Great Vairocana Buddha Vajra Mind ground Followers
Secret Method All Altar Methods” (Jin’gang jun jing jin’gang ding yiqie rulai shen
miao mimi Jin’gang jie da sanmeiye xiuxing sishierzhong tanfa jing zuoyong weiyi faze
da Piluzhe’na fo jin’gang xindi famen mifa jie tanfa yize
). Translation in Sørensen 1991–1992, 291. 32
Kuo 1998, 243