. esoteric buddhism in the nanzhao & dali kingdoms 389
mythic Indian monk who is credited with bringing Buddhism to Yun-
nan is considered a manifestation (huashen ) of Avalokiteśvara.^38
Although it is obvious that much of our knowledge about Nanzhao
Buddhism, in particular the early beliefs and practices, comes from
later sources, there can be little doubt that the cult of Avalokiteśvara
was one of the defining features of both Nanzhao Buddhism as well as
that of the succeeding Dali kingdom.
The cult of Avalokiteśvara was not limited to the Acuoye Guanyin,
but appears in many forms, many of which are documented in the
famous Long Scroll. Hence we find such Esoteric Buddhist forms as
Amoghapāśa, Ekādaśamukha, the thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara
(Dabei Guanyin ), and Cintāmaṇicakra-Avalokiteśvara, as
well as certain local forms, most of which have an extensive accompa-
nying literature. This material, mostly in the form of ritual texts, must
have been present in Yunnanese Buddhism in some form or the other
during the periods in question. The various cults of the different forms
of Avalokiteśvara are reflected in the surviving sculptural art going
back to the late Nanzhao, such as in the caves of Mt. Shizhong, and are
of course prominent among the images in the Long Scroll.^39
In addition to the cult of Avalokiteśvara, Esoteric Buddhism under
the Nanzhao and Dali kingdoms developed a number of other cults,
such as those devoted to the category of protective demon generals
and wrathful divinities. Prominent among these cults are those per-
taining to Mahākāla, a divine demon who has several manifestations,
and Vaiśravaṇa, the “Heavenly King of the North.”^40 Consequently, it
is not surprising that we encounter these two protector gods rather
frequently in the pictorial and sculptural Yunnanese art from the
period ca. 800–1200 C.E.
Esoteric Buddhism and Burial Practices in the Dali Kingdom
The Bai of the Dali kingdom followed special procedures for burial,
procedures that differed considerably from the practices of traditional
China. Although Chinese-style burials are known from both the Nan-
zhao and Dali kingdoms, cremation appears to have been the norm for
(^38) Yü 1991, 28–39. This essay deals primarily with the cult of the Acuoye
Avalokiteśvara. 39
Cf. Chapin 1971, 75–108, 109–10, 116–19, pls. 35–37, 41–42.
(^40) This has been pointed out in a number of studies, including Howard 1991, 50–52.
See also Yang 2002, 231–236.