452 david gray
regions of Liangzhou and Tsongkha in what is now Qinghai province.
The Tibetan traditions of monasticism and vinaya study throve there,
and this Eastern Vinaya tradition was reintroduced to Central Tibet in
the mid-tenth century (Davidson 2002a, 84–106).
During the tenth century, the transmission of Buddhism from India
gradually resumed in an informal fashion. The focus of this transmis-
sion was the new genres of tantric Buddhist literature that rose to
prominence during the eighth and ninth centuries, the mahāyoga and
yoginī tantras. The earliest of these texts, such as the Guhyasamāja
and Sarvabuddhasamāyoga tantras, were composed by the early eighth
century. They were followed by scriptures such as the Cakrasaṃvara
and Hevajra tantras, which were composed by the early ninth century.^3
These texts are characterized by their focus on transgressive practices
involving sexuality and violence. There is evidence indicating that
there were attempts to block the translation of these texts during the
imperial period due to their objectionable content (Gray 2007, 81–82).
It also appears that advocates of certain of these texts (most likely
the Hevajra) began teaching practices associated with them in Tibet
during the tenth century.^4 This attracted the attention of the King of
Gugé, Lha-lama Yeshé-ö (lha bla ma ye shes ‘od, ca. 959–1036 C.E.),
who, like his imperial precursors, objected to the practice of “hereti-
cal teachings” in Tibet. In 985 C.E. he wrote an ordinance criticizing
these practices and characterizing them as non-Buddhist (see Karmay
1980b).
Apparently motivated by concern over the transgressive nature of
the new teachings filtering into Tibet, Lha-lama Yeshé-ö sent a team
of monks, led by Rinchen Zangpo (rin chen bzang po, 958–1055 C.E.)
to India to discover whether or not these new texts and practices
were orthodox or not. Rinchen Zangpo studied with several Buddhist
masters in Kashmir and learned that these scriptures were consid-
ered orthodox Buddhist texts, by their advocates at least. With the
(^3) Regarding the dating of these texts, see Gray 2007, 11–14, as well as Snellgrove
1959, 1.12–16, Willemen 1983, 20–22, and Davidson 2002b, 77–78 n. 69. 4
Tibetan historians focus on a group known as the ar tsho bande or a ra mo bande,
who were evidently led by an infamous practitioner known as the “Red Ācārya,” who
appeared in western Tibet at this time. The latter figure taught a practice known as the
“drop of the path of passion” (chags lam thig le), which was apparently derived from
the Hevajra tantra. Regarding this see Ruegg 1984, 367 and Karmay 1980a, 13–14.