43. ESOTERIC BUDDHISM UNDER THE LIAO
Henrik H. SørensenIntroduction
During the early phase of Esoteric Buddhism under the Khitan Liao
(916–1124), which corresponds roughly to the tenth century, certain
aspects of the Tang Zhenyan traditions of Śubhākarasiṃha, Vajrabo-
dhi, and Amoghavajra continued to be in vogue. In the second phase
covering the rest of the Liao, Esoteric Buddhism would appear to have
been roughly similar to what existed under the neighboring Northern
Song and Koryŏ kingdoms (918–1392). It is also known to have
shared some aspects in common with the Sinitic parts of the emerging
Xixia empire to the west. We have too little evidence to indicate that
Esoteric Buddhism existed as an independent denomination or school
in the Liao empire, but there is enough to show that it was a pervasive
element in Liao Buddhism as a whole. Indeed, much of the surviving
material culture of Khitan Buddhism is directly related to the Esoteric
Buddhist tradition.^1
Scriptural Sources
The carving of the Liao Tripitaka itself was initiated in Yanjing during ̣
the reign of Emperor Xingzong (1031–1054) and completed in 1068
C.E. As far as the Esoteric Buddhist material goes, most of the texts
found in the Kaibao Tripitaka were also included here.̣^2 The majority
of Esoteric Buddhist literature available in the Northern Song empire
was copied and included in the printing of the Liao Tripitaka during ̣
the eleventh century.
The existing number of classical scriptures relating to Esoteric
Buddhism written under the Liao is fairly limited, however, consist-
ing of only a few books. The most significant works are the Dari jing
yishi yanmi chao (Abridged Commentary on the
(^1) For a survey of the history of Esoteric Buddhism under the Liao, see Lü 1995,
463–94.
(^2) Cf. Lü 1995, 489–94.