462 henrik h. sørensen
also feature exoteric ritual elements.^37 Likewise, elements of material
culture, such as offerings, votive gifts, and icons placed in the stūpas
and pagodas, could very well be represented by standard Buddhist
forms reflecting the mainstream tradition. However, in most cases
the empowerment and worship of these monuments would have
had strong Esoteric Buddhist elements, as documented in the many
archaeological reports. When subjected to archaeological investigation
in 1984, the Northern Pagoda at Chaoyang, built of brick and mortar,
was found to contain numerous artifacts associated with Esoteric Bud-
dhist practice.^38
The Sarvadurgatībodoṣṇīṣa-dhāraṇī sūtra was exceedingly popular
during the Liao and the vast majority of the engraved dhāraṇī pil-
lars raised by the Khitans and their Chinese subjects featured this
spell-scripture.^39 Other popular spells engraved in stone included the
Pratyutpannabuddha-samukhā-vasthita-dhāraṇī,^40 the Nīlakaṇthakạ ,^41
and the Raśmivimala-dhāraṇī sūtra,^42 as well as various esoteric and
exoteric Buddhist scriptures.
Excavated tombs have revealed widespread use of dhāraṇī pillars in
connection with funerary practices.^43 One source mentions that such a
dhāraṇī pillar was placed outside the portrait hall ( yingtang ) of a
deceased monk.^44 Dhāraṇī pillars were also placed in imperial tombs,
such as the one constructed for Shengzong (r. 983–1030).^45
(^37) For more on this topic, see Orzech and Sørensen, “Stūpas and Relics in Esoteric
Buddhism,” in this volume.
(^38) Cf. Chaoyang Beita kaogu kancha-dui, comp. 1992. See also Sørensen, “Esoteric
Buddhist Art in China, 960–1279,” in this volume.
(^39) For the most comprehensive discussion of this dhāraṇī in the context of Khitan
culture, see Liu 1996, 1997. See also the excellent study by Copp 2005. For donor
inscriptions related to the Sarvadurgatībodoṣṇīṣa-dhāraṇī, see QLW, pp. 81–82, 105,
115, 170, 177, 186, etc.
(^40) T. 1339. Cf. QLW, p. 299.
(^41) A sūtra pillar from 1067 C.E., bearing the ingraved text of the Nīlakaṇṭhaka-
dhāraṇī, set up as an act of filial piety also invokes the legacy of Amoghavajra, who
also made a translation of this spell. Cf. QLW, p. 187.
(^42) T. 1024. Stele for a stūpa inscribed with the text of the Raśmivimala-dhāraṇī
sūtra, composed by the monk Hezhao (fl. first half of eleventh century). Cf.
QLW 43 , pp. 117–18.
See Han 2000. During the mid-Liao period, it was common for important monks
to be buried in tombs. Similar practices are known from contemporary Koryŏ. Cf.
Sørensen 2009.
(^44) QLW, p. 209.
(^45) QLW, pp. 357–58. This pillar featured both the Sarvadurgatībodoṣṇīṣa-dhāraṇī as
well as the celebrated spell of the Pseudo-Śūraṅgama Sutra (T. 945).