. tibetan buddhism in mongol-yuan china (–) 541
on the lam ’bras Teaching of Virūpa (Miliwoba daoguo juan
) alone consisted of at least ten volumes at the time of its ini-
tial compilation, though only two volumes are extant today.^7 Second,
almost all major and minor sects of Tibetan Buddhism played a role,
whether actively or passively, in spreading tantric Buddhist teachings
and practices at the Mongol court. While the Sa skya pa and the bKa’
brgyud pa were certainly the two most influential schools, other sects,
such as the rNying ma pa, the bKa’ gdams pa, the Zhva lu pa, and the
Jo nang pa, were able to reach the Mongol court in various ways.
The journey in 1274 of the Sa skya pandita Kun dga’ rgyal mtshan
(1182–1252), along with his two nephews, ’Phags pa bla ma Blo gros
rgyal mtshan (1235–1280) and Phyag na rdo rje (1239–1267), to the
camp of the Mongol prince Ködan (1206–1251) in Liangzhou
(present-day Wuwei in Gansu province, China) has often been
considered the pioneering enterprise that initiated political and reli-
gious contact with the Mongols. The Mongols were immediately
attracted to Tibetan tantric Buddhism, in no small part due to the
skillful means of Sa skya pandita’s magical cure of Ködan’s illness.
In fact, the Mongols must have already been exposed to Tibetan
Buddhism long before the historical meeting between Sa skya pan-
dita and Ködan. The process of conquering the Tangut Xia kingdom
(1227) led the Mongols to direct encounters with Tibetan lamas who
were serving the Tangut rulers. Sa skya pa lamas were evidently among
those active in spreading tantric practices to their Tangut followers.
Before Mongol troops reached Central Tibet, they had already been
in contact with Tibetans in Eastern Tibet, i.e. mDo khams, for a long
time. Some Tibetan lamas lived among the Mongols and attracted fol-
lowers to the faith by demonstrating their magical powers. Chingis
Khan (1162–1227) is alleged to have disliked the state preceptor of
Tangut Xia, who was most probably a Tibetan lama, because he always
deflowered girls before their marriages.^8 Nevertheless, Khan’s descen-
dents eventually became the most enthusiastic followers of Tibetan
lamas.
(^7) Miliwoba shangshi daoguo juan (Volume of the Path and
Fruit Teaching of the Master Virūpa), translated by bSod nams grags.
Ming manuscript. It is noted that it is the tenth volume of the path and fruit
teaching (Daoguo di shi ). See Beijing tushuguan guji shanben shumu
, 1604, 1620.
(^8) Wang 1936, 108.