. tantric buddhism in ming china 551
court. Not only older monasteries such as sNar thang, gSang phu, rTse
thang, and Sa skya, but also the newly established four major monas-
teries of the dGe lugs pa, i.e. ’Bras spungs, dGa ldan, Se ra, and bKra
shis lhun po frequently sent tribute missions to the Ming court. With
the coming of a large number of Tibetan monks, Tibetan Buddhism
naturally spread in China both within the Ming palace and among
ordinary people outside the palace.^3
Most Ming emperors showed enthusiasm for Tibetan Buddhism.
Emperor Yongle (r. 1402–1424) has been viewed as the first Ming
emperor who not only treated Tibetan monks well but also “extolled
their religion.” Yongle himself sponsored two events which were hall-
marks in the history of Ming court’s interaction with Tibet and had
far-reaching effects for later generations. One of the events was invit-
ing the fifth Karma pa patriarch De bzhin gshegs pa (1383–1415) to
the court and ordering him to “lead monks to hold a grand fasting
ceremony at the Linggu monastery to bless Emperor Taizu
(r. 1368–1398) and his empress.” This high-profile event was later
interpreted as a successful political show conducted for the purpose
of changing Emperor Yongle’s image as a usurper of the throne. At the
same time it functioned to legitimate the use of Tibetan Buddhism in
state ritual to strengthen imperial authority.^4 Undoubtedly, the grand
fasting ceremony also provided the main actor, the fifth Karma pa
patriarch De bzhin gshegs pa, a stage to fully demonstrate the power
and appeal of Tibetan Buddhism. When news about this great Dharma
convention and various legendary stories associated with it began to
spread, Tibetan Buddhism finally shook off the demonized image of
the late Yuan and once again openly spread in China. The other event
was the carving of printing blocks of the first Tibetan bKa’ ’gyur, which
is late referred to as “the Yongle Kanjur.” This block print edition was
the earliest and remained most authoritative version of the Tibetan
Buddhist canon. The printing and circulation of “the Yongle Kanjur”
in China, Tibet, and Mongolia greatly contributed to the dissemina-
tion of Tibetan Buddhism in the three regions.^5
After Yongle, all the emperors of the mid Ming embraced Tibetan
Buddhism. During the Xuanzong reign (1398–1435), the early Ming
(^3) With regard the tributary system of Ming, see Otosaka 1998.
(^4) See Deng 1998; Berger 2001.
(^5) Silk 1996.